Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

This study examines spirituality’s role in the People Power Revolution, which restored democracy in the Philippines after the Marcos dictatorship. A historical methodology is used in which articles, reports, and other relevant documents are located and critically examined to construct an account of events. A conceptual model, informed by sociological theory, indicates that spiritually inspired transformative change occurs through three interconnected pathways: (a) individual actions, (b) programmatic efforts, and (c) structural change initiatives. The findings illustrate that spirituality is not just an interior phenomenon but also facilitates the creation of democratic structures. Implications include the importance of engaging spirituality in work with individuals, families, and communities; and supporting human rights—such as freedom of religion, speech, and association—which counter authoritarian impulses.

Keywords

spirituality social justice People Power Revolution Philippines religion

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abulad

R. E.

(2017). Martial law and religion. Scientia: The International Journal on the Liberal Arts, 6(2), 45–59. https://doi.org/10.57106/scientia.v6i2.73

Altarejos

M. O.

(2008). Filipino basic ecclesial communities between limitation and self-transcendence: A Lonergan-based elucidation of fundamental spirituality [Doctoral dissertation, Radboud University Nijmegen]. https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/2066/32040/32040_filibaecc.pdf

Andersen

T. B.

Jensen

(2019). Preaching democracy: The Second Vatican Council and the Third Wave. Journal of Comparative Economics, 47(3), 525–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2019.03.005

Astorga

M. C. A.

(2006). Culture, religion, and moral vision: A theological discourse on the Filipino people power revolution of 1986. Theological Studies, 67(3), 567–601. https://doi.org/10.1177/004056390606700305

Bagadion

Jr. (1986). People power in the Philippines. Philippine Sociological Review, 34(1), 5–15. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44242614

Belcher

J. R.

Sarmiento Mellinger

(2016). Integrating spirituality with practice and social justice: The challenge for social work. Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought, 35(4), 377–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/15426432.2016.1229645

Bosi

Reiter

(2014). Historical methodologies. In della Porta

(Ed.), Methodological practices in social movement research (pp. 117–143). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198719571.003.0006

Bouwhuis-Van Keulen

A. J.

Koelen

Eurelings-Bontekoe

Hoekstra-Oomen

Glas

. (2024). The evaluation of religious and spirituality-based therapy compared to standard treatment in mental health care: A multi-level meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Psychotherapy Research, 34(3), 339–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2023.2241626

Bradley

Maschi

Gilmore

(2007). One woman’s life journey: A case study of spirituality and activism. Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought, 26, 21–47. https://doi.org/10.1300/J377v26n04_02

10.

Brillantes

A. B.

Jr. (1987). Dictatorship & martial law: Philippine authoritarianism in 1972. University of the Philippines Diliman School of Public Administration.

11.

Călinescu

Tismăneanu

(2019). The 1989 revolution and Romania’s future. In Nelson

D. N.

(Ed.), Romania after tyranny (pp. 11–45). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429304941-3

12.

Canda

E. R.

Furman

L. D.

Canda

H. J.

(2020). Spiritual diversity in social work practice: The heart of helping (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.

13.

Cartagenas

(2010). Religion and politics in the Philippines: The public role of the Roman Catholic Church in the democratization of the Filipino polity. Political Theology, 11(6), 846–872. https://doi.org/10.1558/poth.v11i6.846

14.

Chenot

Kim

(2017). Spirituality, religion, social justice orientation, and the career aspirations of young adults. Journal of Social Work Education, 53(4), 699–713. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2017.1283267

15.

Cheung

C. T.

Cheng

C. M. H.

Lam

S. K. K.

Ling

H. W. H.

Lau

K. L.

Hung

S. L.

Fung

H. W.

(2023). Reliability and validity of a novel measure of nonviolent communication behaviors. Research on Social Work Practice, 33(7), 790–797. https://doi.org/10.1177/10497315221128595

16.

Cnaan

R. A.

(2016). Harnessing faith for improved quality of life: Government and faith-based nonprofit organizations in partnership. Human Service Organizations: Management, Leadership & Governance, 40(3), 208–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/23303131.2015.1117555

17.

Cnaan

R. A.

(2018). Even priceless has to have a number: Congregational halo effect. Journal of Management, Spirituality, & Religion, 15(1), 64–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/14766086.2017.1394214

18.

Cole

H. L.

(2023). What are we teaching in spirituality and social work elective courses? A qualitative content analysis of BSW syllabi. Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought, 42(1), 3–35.https://doi.org/10.1080/15426432.2022.2111393

19.

Council on Social Work Education. (2022). Educational policy and accreditation standards. https://www.cswe.org/getmedia/bb5d8afe-7680-42dc-a332-a6e6103f4998/2022-EPAS.pdf

20.

Crisp

B. R.

(2020). Charting the development of spirituality in social work in the second decade of the 21st century: A critical commentary. The British Journal of Social Work, 50(3), 961–978. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcaa015

21.

de Brito Sena

M. A.

Damiano

R. F.

Lucchetti

Peres

M. F. P

. (2021). Defining spirituality in healthcare: A systematic review and conceptual framework. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 756080. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.756080

22.

Deflem

Dove

A. L.

(2013). Historical research and social movements. In Snow

D. A.

della Porta

Klandermans

McAdam

(Eds.), The Wiley-Blackwell encyclopedia of social and political movements (pp. 560–563). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.wbespm102

23.

del Castillo

. (2023). Pakikipagkapwa-tao as a mode of inter-religious dialogue in the contemporary Philippines during the COVID-19 pandemic. HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies, 79(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v79i1.8015

24.

Doorenspleet

(2004). The structural context of recent transitions to democracy. European Journal of Political Research, 43(3), 309–335. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2004.00156.x

25.

Dybicz

(2021). The unfulfilled promise of scientific inquiry in advancing social work knowledge and practice. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 3(1), 100117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2021.100117

26.

Dyson

Cobb

Forman

(1997). The meaning of spirituality: A literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 26(6), 1183–1188. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.1997.00446.x

27.

Edara

I. R.

(2017). Religion: A subset of culture and an expression of spirituality. Advances in Anthropology, 7(4), 273–288. https://doi.org/10.4236/aa.2017.74015

28.

Fazal

(2023). ‘Documents of power’: Historical method and the study of politics. Studies in Indian Politics, 11(1), 140–149. https://doi.org/10.1177/23210230231166179

29.

Garrett

P. M.

(2024). What are we talking about when we are talking about “decolonising” social work? The British Journal of Social Work, 54(5), 2027–2044. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcae018

30.

Gil

D. G.

(1998). Confronting injustice and oppression: Concepts and strategies for social workers. Columbia University Press.

31.

Goldstein

W. S.

Reed

J. P.

(Eds.). (2022). Religion in rebellions, revolutions, and social movements. Routledge.

32.

Good News Club v. Milford Central School, 533 U.S. 98. (2001). https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/533/98/

33.

Gorospe

V. R.

(1988). Power and responsibility: A Filipino Christian perspective. Philippine Studies, 36(1), 75–87. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42633064

34.

Haque

Tubbs

C. Y.

Kahumoku-Fessler

E. P.

Brown

M. D.

(2019). Microaggressions and Islamophobia: Experiences of Muslims across the United States and clinical implications. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 45(1), 76–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.12339

35.

Petrakis

(2025). Spirituality/religious diversity in personal recovery and the interactions between service users and mental health services: A critical literature review of service users’ perspectives. Social Work in Mental Health, 23(1), 97–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332985.2024.2399547

36.

Hermida

R. B.

(2015). The Catholic Church in the Philippine public sphere. Kritika Kultura, 1(24), 28–43. https://archium.ateneo.edu/kk/vol1/iss24/6

37.

Hodge

D. R.

(2007). Social justice and people of faith: A transnational perspective. Social Work, 52(2), 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/52.2.139

38.

Hodge

D. R.

(2012). The conceptual and empirical relationship between spirituality and social justice: Exemplars from diverse faith traditions. Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought, 31(1–2), 32–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/15426432.2012.647878

39.

Hodge

D. R.

(2015). Spiritual assessment in social work and mental health practice. Columbia University Press.

40.

Hodge

D. R.

Carpenter

B. M.

Yepez

R. A.

Lietz

B. C.

(2021). Spirituality and religion in leading social work journals: A 10-year content analysis. Social Work Research, 45(1), 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svaa026

41.

Islamia

Arif

A. R.

(2025). Family vulnerability: Examining the contributions of spirituality and social support. ANFUSINA: Journal of Psychology, 8(1), 61–74. https://doi.org/10.24042/ajp.v8i1.26887

42.

Jurgens

L. K.

(2021). Understanding research methodology: Social history and the Reformation period in Europe. Religions, 12(6), 370. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12060370

43.

Kaiser

L. R.

(2000). Spirituality and the physician executive. Physician Executive, 26, 6–14.

44.

Karakas

(2010). Spirituality and performance in organizations: A literature review. Journal of Business Ethics, 94(1), 89–106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0251-5

45.

Kessler

R. J.

(1989). Rebellion and Repression in the Philippines. Yale University Press.

46.

Komenich

(2014). Philippine “People Power” revolution revisited. Visual Communication Quarterly, 21(3), 162–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/15551393.2014.975019

47.

Lalani

(2020). Meanings and interpretations of spirituality in nursing and health. Religions, 11(9), 428. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11090428

48.

Lee

E.-K. O.

Barrett

(2007). Integrating spirituality, faith, and social justice in social work practice and education: A pilot study. Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought, 26(2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1300/J377v26n02_01

49.

Lerner

(2000). Spirit matters. Hampton Roads Publishing Company.

50.

Lewis

C. S.

(2001). Mere Christianity. HarperCollins. (Original work published 1952)

51.

Litonjua

M. D.

(2005). The 1986 yellow revolution of the Philippines: Why not red? International Review of Modern Sociology, 31(2), 179–206. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41421643

52.

Mahmoud v. Taylor, 606 U.S. ___. (2025). https://www.apa.org/about/offices/ogc/amicus/mahmoud.pdf

53.

McCargo

(2003). Media and politics in Pacific Asia. Routledge.

54.

McCoy

(2001). Dark legacy: Human rights under the Marcos regime. In McCoy

(Ed.), Memory, truth-telling, and the pursuit of justice: A conference on the legacies of the Marcos dictatorship (pp. 129–144). Office of Research and Publications, Ateneo de Manila University.

55.

Mendoza

Jr. (2009). “People power” in the Philippines, 1983–86. In Robert

Ash

T. G.

(Eds.), Civil resistance and power politics: The experience of non-violent action from Gandhi to the present (pp. 179–197). Oxford University Press.

56.

Moxham

(2022). Christianity and radical democracy in the Philippines: Building a church of the poor. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003302780

57.

National Association of Social Workers. (2021). Code of ethics. https://www.socialworkers.org/About/Ethics/Code-of-Ethics/Code-of-Ethics-English

58.

Obar

J. A.

(2021). Source triangulation skills and the future of digital inclusion: How information literacy policy can address misinformation and disinformation challenges. In Karanicolas

(Ed.), Tackling the “fake” without harming the “news”: A paper series on regulatory responses to misinformation (pp. 85–103). Wikimedia/Yale Law School Initiative on Intermediaries and Information.

59.

Ogbanga

M. M.

Bukie

B. F.

(2024). Traditional institutions and conflict resolution in Nigeria: A social work analysis. International Journal of Research, 11(9), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.13823154

60.

Orazani

S. N.

Leidner

(2019). The power of nonviolence: Confirming and explaining the success of nonviolent (rather than violent) political movements. European Journal of Social Psychology, 49(4), 688–704. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2526

61.

Orlowski

E. W.

Moeyaert

Monley

Redden

(2025). The effects of cultural humility on therapeutic alliance and psychotherapy outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 25(2), e12835. https://doi.org/10.1002/capr.12835

62.

Osa

(1997). Creating solidarity: The religious foundations of the Polish social movement. East European Politics and Societies, 11(2), 339–365. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888325497011002007

63.

Ouellet

J. X.

(2013). Women and religion in Liberia’s peace and reconciliation. Critical Intersections in Education, 1(1), 12–20.

64.

Ovrelid

(2008). The cultivation of moral character: A Buddhist challenge to social workers. Ethics and Social Welfare, 2, 243–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/17496530802481573

65.

Oxhandler

H. K.

Parrish

D. E.

(2018). Integrating clients’ religion/spirituality in clinical practice: A comparison among social workers, psychologists, counselors, marriage and family therapists, and nurses. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 74(4), 680–694. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22539

66.

Padgett

D. K.

(2016). Qualitative methods in social work research (3rd ed.). Sage.

67.

Pangalangan

R. C.

(2021). Human rights cases from the Marcos dictatorship. In Pangalangan

R. C.

(Ed.), Philippine Materials in International Law (pp. 262–308). Brill Nijhoff. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004469723_009

68.

Parker

(2024). Religious and spiritual diversity in multiple modernities: A decolonial perspective focusing on peripheral religious expressions. Religions, 15(6), 726. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15060726

69.

Pew Research Center. (2020). The global God divide. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2020/07/PG_2020.07.20_Global-Religion_FINAL.pdf

70.

Powell

J. A.

(2005). Moving beyond the isolated self. Social Policy, 35, 72–73.

71.

Prior

M. K.

Quinn

A. S.

(2014). The relationship between spirituality and social justice advocacy: Attitudes of social work students. In Sheridan

M. J.

(Ed.), Connecting spirituality and social justice (pp. 172–192). Routledge.

72.

Ramanathan

C. S.

Juvva

Stephens

Scheyett

Dutta

(2025). Spirituality, social work practice, and sustainable development. Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought, 44(2), 154–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/15426432.2025.2475900

73.

Rappler. (2016, February 22). Jaime Cardinal Sin urging people to go to EDSA in 1986 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Av80CKA66Nw&t=80s

74.

Richards

P. S.

Bergin

A. E.

(Eds.). (2014). Handbook of psychotherapy and religious diversity (2nd ed.). American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/pubs/books/4317338

75.

Saleebey

(Ed.). (2013). The strengths perspective in social work practice (6th ed.). Pearson.

76.

San Juan

Jr. (1988). Reading the text of the February “revolution” in the Philippines. Southeast Asia Journal, 16(1), 15–23. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12852/2779

77.

Scott

M. L.

Cnaan

R. A.

(2018). Religious congregations and poverty alleviation in the age of public governance. Nonprofit Policy Forum, 8(4), 391–410. https://doi.org/10.1515/npf-2017-0013

78.

Sharun

(2023). The critical information literacy of social workers: Information literacy as interpersonal practice. Journal of Information Literacy, 17(1), 186–203. https://doi.org/10.11645/17.1.3351%20

79.

Shirley

S. B.

(2003). Guided by God: The Catholic Church and political legitimacy in the Philippines. Old Dominion University.

80.

Shoesmith

(2020). The dichotomous legacy of the Catholic Church’s opposition to the Philippine revolution of 1896. The European Legacy, 25(5), 502–518. https://doi-org.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/10.1080/10848770.2020.1761627

81.

Smith

(Ed.). (2014). Disruptive religion: The force of faith in social movement activism. Routledge.

82.

Špiláčková

(2016). The importance of historical knowledge for social work as a science, profession and academic discipline–experiences from Czech Republic. ERIS Journal-Summer, 2016, 66–78.

83.

Sue

D. W.

(Ed). (2010). Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact. Wiley.

84.

Tanyi

R. A.

(2002). Towards clarification of the meaning of spirituality. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 39(5), 500–509. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2002.02315.x

85.

Tao

(2018). Agitators, tranquilizers, or something else: Do religious groups increase or decrease contentious collective action? Religions, 9(7), 213. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9070213

86.

Tarpeh

Hustedde

(2020). How faith-based organizations perceive their role in community development: An exploratory study. Community Development, 52(1), 61–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2020.1831565

87.

Tarshish

(2024). Revisiting the Global Social Work Definition: How social workers define the profession a decade later? The British Journal of Social Work, 55(2), 858–876. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcae164

88.

Task Force Detainees of the Philippines. (1986). Pumipiglas: Political detention and military atrocities in the Philippines 1981–1982. Association of Major Religious Superiors in the Philippines.

89.

Todd

N. R.

Rufa

A. K.

(2013). Social justice and religious participation: A qualitative investigation of Christian perspectives. American Journal of Community Psychology, 51(3–4), 315–331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-012-9552-4

90.

Tozer

(2015). Non-violent direct action case study: People power in the Philippines. https://www.academia.edu/28692558/Non_violent_Direct_Action_Case_Study_People_Power_in_the_Philippines

91.

United Nations. (2021). Universal declaration of human rights. https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights (Original work published 1948)

92.

Veneracion

M. C. J.

(2000). A hundred years of social work in the Philippines: Roots and heritage. CSWCD Development Journal, A special issue initiated by the Department of Social Work, 1–27. https://cswcd.upd.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/CDJ-2000_01_Veneracion.pdf

93.

Villegas

B. M.

(1987). The Philippines in 1986: Democratic reconstruction in the post-Marcos era. Asian Survey, 27(2), 194–205. https://doi.org/10.2307/2644614

94.

Voerman-Tam

Grimes

A. J.

Watson

(2023). The economics of free speech: Subjective wellbeing and empowerment of marginalized citizens. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 212, 260–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2023.05.047

95.

Walsh

(2020). Loss and resilience in the time of COVID-19: Meaning making, hope, and transcendence. Family Process, 59(3), 898–911. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12588

96.

Weaver

R. L.

(2024). Remedies for “disinformation.” University of Pacific Law Review, 55, 185–208. https://scholarlycommons.pacific.edu/uoplawreview/vol55/iss2/8

97.

Weinstein

(2011). Participatory democracy as the central value of American free speech doctrine. Virginia Law Review, 97(3), 491–514. https://www.virginialawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/491.pdf

98.

Westberg

(2025). Historical methods in educational research: Sources, contextualisation, periodisation and analysis. Paedagogica Historica, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/00309230.2025.2473704

99.

Wood

R. L.

(1999). Religious culture and political action. Sociological Theory, 17(3), 307–332. https://doi.org/10.1111/0735-2751.00082

100.

Yabut

(2018, October). The development of the Filipino spirituality scale [Conference session]. DLSU ARTS Congress, Manila, The Philippines. https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/pdf/conferences/arts-congress-proceedings/2017/paper-45-abstract.pdf

101.

Yapchiongco

(2022, September 19). Martial law by the numbers. The Philippine Star Life. https://philstarlife.com/news-and-views/649814-martial-law-by-the-numbers

102.

Youngblood

(1990). Marcos against the church: Economic development and political repression in the Philippines. Cornell University Press.

103.

N. G.

(2006). Interrogating social work: Philippine social work and human rights under martial law. International Journal of Social Welfare, 15(3), 257–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2397.2006.00401.x

Spirituality as a Facilitator of Social Justice Advocacy: Practice and Educational Insights From the Philippine People Power Revolution

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References