This article examines how contact visits between fathers in prison and their children affect fathers’ views of their relationship with their children. The sample of fathers derives from the Multi-site Family Study on Incarceration, Parenting and Partnering (MFS-IP). Propensity score matching is used to select a demographically comparable sample of fathers from the data set. Two of the three propensity score models provided positive and significant results. The study findings indicated that fathers participating in in-person visits with their focal child at the 9-month interview increased modestly the probability of fathers reporting a positive relationship with their focal child at the 34-month follow-up interview.
This study provides insights for social workers, correctional personnel, and policymakers, indicating that family contact is essential to family-strengthening services and beneficial for incarcerated fathers and their children.
AbidinR. R.KonoldT. R. (1999). PAM: Parenting alliance measure: Professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.
2.
AllisonP. D. (2010). Missing data. Sage.
3.
AndersonA. J.HenrichC. C.MrugS. (2024). Paternal Incarceration and Adolescent Delinquency: Role of Father Engagement and Early Child Behavior Problems. Prevention Science, 25(8), 1228–1237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-024-01734-2
4.
ApelR. J.SweetenG. (2010). Propensity score matching in criminology and criminal justice. In Handbook of quantitative criminology (pp. 543–562). Springer.
ArdittiJ. A.Lambert-ShuteJ.JoestK. (2003). Saturday morning at the jail: Implications of incarceration for families and children. Family Relations, 52(3), 195–204. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2003.00195.x
7.
ArdittiJ. A.SavlaJ. (2015). Parental incarceration and child trauma symptoms in single caregiver homes. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(3), 551–561. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9867-2
8.
ArdittiJ.SmockS.ParkmanT. (2005). It’s been hard to be a father: A qualitative exploration of incarcerated fatherhood. Fathering: A Journal of Theory Research and Practice about Men as Fathers, 3(3), 267–288. doi:10.3149/fth.0303.267
9.
AustinP. C. (2011). An introduction to propensity score methods for reducing confounding effects in observational studies. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 46(3), 399–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2011.568786
10.
BalesW. D.MearsD. P. (2008). Inmate social ties and the transition to society: Does visitation reduce recidivism?Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427808317574
11.
BenningC. L.LahmK. F. (2014). Effects of parent-child relationships on inmate behavior: A comparison of male and female inmates. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 60(2), 189–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X14551402
12.
BirA.LindquistC. (2014a). Multisite family study on incarceration, parenting and partnering, 2008-2014 [5 states]: Methodology. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research.
13.
BirA.LindquistC. (2014b). Multisite family study on incarceration, parenting and partnering, 2008-2014 [5 states]: Codebook for male baseline variables. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research.
14.
BirA.LindquistC. (2014c). Multisite family study on incarceration, parenting and partnering, 2008-2014 [5 states]: Codebook for male 34 month variables. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research.
15.
BlockS.BrownC. A.BarrettiL. M.WalkerE.YudtM.FretzR. (2014). A mixed-method assessment of a parenting program for incarcerated fathers. Journal of Correctional Education, 65(1), 50–67.
16.
BoudinC.StutzT.LittmanA. (2013). Prison visitation policies: A fifty-state survey. Yale Law & Policy Review, 32(1), 149–189. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2171412
17.
BrightC. L.SaccoP.KolivoskiK. M.StapletonL. M.JunH.-J.Morris-ComptonD. (2017). Gender differences in patterns of substance use and delinquency: A latent transition analysis. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 26(2), 162–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/1067828X.2016.1242100
18.
BronfenbrennerU. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32, 582–590.
19.
Burgess-ProctorA.HuebnerB. M.DursoJ. M. (2016). Comparing the effects of maternal and paternal incarceration on adult daughters’ and sons’ criminal justice system involvement: A gendered pathways analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 43(8), 1034–1055. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854816643122
20.
CabreraN. J.Tamis-LeMondaC. S. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of father involvement: Multidisciplinary perspectives. Routledge.
21.
CadoniL.HanleyN.FlynnC. (2023). Prisoners and their families in Argentina: navigating COVID-19. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 35(4), 447–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2023.2218949
22.
CastilloJ.WelchG.SarverC. (2011). Fathering: The relationship between fathers’ residence, fathers’ socio-demographic characteristics, and father involvement. Maternal & Child Health Journal, 15(8), 1342–1349. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-010-0684-6
23.
CastilloJ. T.Fenzl-CrossmanA. (2010). The relationship between non-marital fathers’ social networks and social capital and father involvement. Child & Family Social Work, 15(1), 66–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2206.2009.00644.x
24.
CharlesP.MuentnerL.GottliebA.EddyJ. M. (2023a). Parent-child contact during incarceration: Predictors of involvement among resident and nonresident parents following release from prison. Social Service Review, 97(1), 169–213. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/723450
25.
CharlesP.MuentnerL.KjellstrandJ. (2019). Parenting and incarceration: Perspectives on father-child involvement during reentry from prison. Social Service Review, 93(2), 218–261. https://doi.org/10.1086/703446
26.
CharlesP.PoehlmannJ.KerrM.JensenS.PritzlK. (2023b). Supported remote video visits for children with incarcerated parents in the United States. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 35(4), 473–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2023.2209302
27.
ChristianJ. (2005). Riding the bus barriers to prison visitation and family management strategies. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 21(1), 31–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986204271618
28.
ChristianJ.MellowJ.ThomasS. (2006). Social and economic implications of family connections to prisoners. Journal of Criminal Justice, 34(4), 443–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2006.05.010
29.
ClarkV. A.DuweG. (2017). Distance matters: Examining the factors that impact prisoner visitation in Minnesota. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 44(2), 184–204. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854816667416
30.
CochranJ. C.BarnesJ. C.MearsD. P.BalesW. D. (2020). Revisiting the effect of visitation on recidivism. Justice Quarterly, 37(2), 304–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2018.1508606
31.
CochranJ. C.MearsD. P.BalesW. D.StewartE. A. (2016). Spatial distance, community disadvantage, and racial and ethnic variation in prison inmate access to social ties. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 53(2), 220–254. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427815592675
32.
ConnorD. P.TewksburyR. (2015). Prison inmates and their visitors: An examination of inmate characteristics and visitor types. The Prison Journal, 95(2), 159–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885515575262
33.
CramerL.GoffM.PetersonB.SandstromH. (2017). Parent-child visiting practices in prisons and jails. Urban Institute.
34.
DallaireD. H.CicconeA.WilsonL. C. (2010). Teachers’ experiences with and expectations of children with incarcerated parents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31(4), 281–290.
35.
DatchiC. C. (2017). Masculinities, fatherhood, and desistance from crime: Moderating and mediating processes involved in men’s criminal conduct. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 25(1), 44–69. https://doi.org/10.1177/1060826516641100
36.
DigardL.diZeregaM.YaroniA.RinaldiJ. (2016). A New role for technology? Implementing video visitation in prison. Vera Institute of Justice.
37.
DixeyR.WoodallJ. (2012). The significance of ‘the visit’in an English category-B prison: Views from prisoners, prisoners’ families and prison staff. Community, Work & Family, 15(1), 29–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2011.580125
38.
DuweG.ClarkV. (2013). Blessed be the social tie that binds: The effects of prison visitation on offender recidivism. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 24(3), 271–296. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0887403411429724
39.
DuweG.McNeeleyS. (2021). Just as good as the real thing? The effects of prison video visitation on recidivism. Crime & Delinquency, 67(4), 475–497. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0011128720943168
40.
EasonJ. M. (2016). Reclaiming the prison boom: Considering prison proliferation in the era of mass imprisonment. Sociology Compass, 10(4), 261–271.
41.
EddyJ. M.BurrastonB. O. (2018). Programs promoting the successful reentry of fathers from jail or prison to home in their communities. In WildemanC.HaskinsA. R.Poehlmann-TynanJ. (Eds.), APA Bronfenbrenner series on the ecology of human development. When parents are incarcerated: Interdisciplinary research and interventions to support children (pp. 109–131). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000062-006
42.
EddyJ. M.Martinez Jr.C. R.BurrastonB. O.HerreraD.NewtonR. M. (2022). A randomized controlled trial of a parent management training program for incarcerated parents: Post-release outcomes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(8), 4605. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084605
43.
EddyJ. M.Poehlmann-TynanJ. (2019). Interdisciplinary perspectives on research and intervention with children of incarcerated parents. In Handbook on children with incarcerated parents (pp. 3–10). Springer.
44.
EwertS.SykesB. L.PettitB. (2014). The degree of disadvantage: Incarceration and inequality in education. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 651(1), 24–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002716213503100
45.
FaragunaA. (2023). Supporting family video visits during COVID-19: The experiences of the Community Restorative Centre. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 35(4), 440–446. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2023.2203284
46.
FearonR. P.Bakermans-KranenburgM. J.Van IJzendoornM. H.LapsleyA. M.RoismanG. I. (2010). The significance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children’s externalizing behavior: A meta-analytic study. Child Development, 81(2), 435–456. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01405.x
47.
FedockG.FriesL.KubiakS. P. (2013). Service needs for incarcerated adults: Exploring gender differences. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 52(7), 493–508. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509674.2012.759171
48.
FosterH. (2012). The strains of maternal imprisonment: Importation and deprivation stressors for women and children. Journal of Criminal Justice, 40, 221–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/jcrimjus.2012.01.005
49.
GellerA.GarfinkelI.WesternB. (2011). Paternal incarceration and support for children in fragile families. Demography, 48(1), 25–47.
50.
GlazeL. E.MaruschakL. M. (2008). Parents in prison and their minor children (Report No. NCJ 222984). Bureau of Justice Statistics.
51.
GreifG. L. (2014). The voices of fathers in prison: Implications for family practice. Journal of Family Social Work, 17(1), 68–80.
52.
HanleyN.FlynnC. (2023). Technology-enabled prison visiting: Learning from research and practice during the COVID-19 pandemic. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 35(4), 415–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2023.2229523
53.
HayesD.ButlerM.DevaneyJ.PercyA. (2020). Allowing imprisoned fathers to parent: Maximising the potential benefits of prison based parenting programmes. In Imprisoned fathers (pp. 71–87). Routledge.
54.
HoffmanH. C.ByrdA. L.KightlingerA. M. (2010). Prison programs and services for incarcerated parents and their underage children: Results from a National Survey of Correctional Facilities. The Prison Journal, 90, 397–416. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885510382087
55.
HouckK. D.LoperA. B. (2002). The relationship of parenting stress to adjustment among mothers in prison. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72(4), 548–558. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.72.4.548
56.
ImbensG. W. (2004). Nonparametric estimation of average treatment effects under exogeneity: A review. Review of Economics and Statistics, 86(1), 4–29. https://doi.org/10.1162/003465304323023651
KobakR.MadsenS. (2008). Disruptions in attachment bonds: Implications for theory, research, and clinical Intervention. In CassidyJ.ShaverP. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 23–47). Guilford Press.
59.
LambM. E. (2000). The history of research on father involvement: An overview. Marriage & Family Review, 29(2–3), 23–42. https://doi.org/10.1300/J002v29n02_03
60.
LambM. E.PleckJ. H.CharnovE. L.LevineJ. A. (1985). Paternal behavior in humans. American Zoologist, 883–894.
61.
LandrethG. L.LobaughA. F. (1998). Filial therapy with incarcerated fathers: Effects on parental acceptance of child, parental stress, and child adjustment. Journal of Counseling & Development, 76(2), 157–165.
62.
LaubJ. H.NaginD. S.SampsonR. J. (1998). Trajectories of change in criminal offending: Good marriages and the desistance process. American Sociological Review, 225–238. https://doi.org/10.2307/2657324
63.
La VigneN. G.NaserR. L.BrooksL. E.CastroJ. L. (2005). Examining the effect of incarceration and in prison family contact on prisoners’ family relationships. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 21, 314–355. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986205281727
64.
LindquistC.ComfortM.LandwehrJ.FeinbergR.CohenJ.McKayT.BirA. (2016). Change in father-child relationships before, during, and after incarceration. Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
65.
LindquistC.McKayT.BirA.SteffeyD. (2015). The experiences of families during a father’s incarceration: Descriptive findings from baseline data collection for the multisite family study on incarceration, parenting and partnering. Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
66.
LindquistC.SteffeyD.McKayT.ComfortM.BirA. (2018a). The Multisite Family Study on Incarceration, Partnering, and Parenting: Design and sample. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 57(2), 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509674.2018.1441210
67.
LindquistC.SteffeyD.TuellerS.McKayT.ComfortM.BirA. (2018b). The multisite family study on incarceration, partnering, and parenting: Program impacts. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 57(2), 115–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509674.2018.1441211
68.
LindseyA. M.MearsD. P.CochranJ. C.BalesW. D.StultsB. J. (2017). In prison and far from home: Spatial distance effects on inmate misconduct. Crime & Delinquency, 63(9), 1043–1065. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128715614017
69.
LiuS.PickettJ. T.BakerT. (2016). Inside the black box: Prison visitation, the costs of offending, and inmate social capital. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 27(8), 766–790. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403414562421
70.
LoperA. B.CarlsonL. W.LevittL.ScheffelK. (2009). Parenting stress, alliance, child contact, and adjustment of imprisoned mothers and fathers. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 48(6), 483–503.
71.
LoperA. B.TuerkE. H. (2006). Parenting programs for incarcerated parents. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 17(4), 407–427.
72.
MarunaS.TochH. (2005). The impact of imprisonment on the desistance process. In TravisJ.VisherC. (Eds.), Prisoner reentry and crime in America (pp. 139–178). Cambridge University Press.
73.
MaruschakL. M.BronsonJ.AlperM. (2021). Parents in prison and their minor children (Report No. NCJ 252645). U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
74.
MayesS. D.CastagnaP. J.WaschbuschD. A. (2020). Sex differences in externalizing and internalizing symptoms in ADHD, autism, and general population samples. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 42(3), 519–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-020-09798-4
75.
McKayT.ComfortM.LindquistC.BirA. (2019). Holding on: Family and fatherhood during incarceration and reentry. University of California Press.
76.
McLeodB.TirmaziT. (2017). Paternal dimensions and complexities: Understanding the relationships between parental dyads and fathers’ involvement among Black fathers with criminal records. Journal of Family Social Work, 20(5), 376–398. https://doi.org/10.1080/10522158.2017.1283653
77.
McLeodB. A. (2017). Fathering despite perpetual penalties: Examining fathers’ involvement amidst the collateral consequences of previous criminal justice involvement. Urban Social Work, 1(2), 144–164. https://doi.org/10.1891/2474-8684.1.2.144
78.
McLeodB. A. (2021). The effect of multiple forms of father-child contact during imprisonment on fathers’ reports of relationship quality. Corrections, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/23774657.2021.1874846
79.
McLeodB. A.BonsuJ. (2018). The benefits and challenges of visitation practices in correctional settings: Will video visitation assist incarcerated fathers and their children?Children and Youth Services Review, 93, 30–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.07.004
80.
McLeodB. A.CharlesP.GottliebA.MuentnerL. (2024). Father-child contact during prison and its association with fathers’ parenting self-efficacy. Families in Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/10443894231220411
81.
McLeodB. A.GreifG. L. (2022). Group work with fathers in federal pretrial detention and a community-based residential setting: Reflections on practice and policies across contexts. In Social work practice with fathers: Engagement, assessment, and intervention (pp. 169–184). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13686-3_10
MowenT. J.VisherC. A. (2015). Drug use and crime after incarceration: The role of family support and family conflict. Justice Quarterly, 32(2), 337–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2013.771207
85.
MowenT. J.VisherC. A. (2016). Changing the ties that bind: How incarceration impacts family relationships. Criminology & Public Policy, 15(2), 503–528. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12207
86.
MuentnerL.HowlandM.ClarkV.DuweG.ShlaferR. (2022). Understanding the needs and programmatic interests of incarcerated parents: Findings from a prison needs assessment. Corrections, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/23774657.2022.2136115
87.
MullerC.RoehrkasseA. F. (2022). Racial and class inequality in US incarceration in the early twenty-first century. Social Forces, 101(2), 803–828. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soab141
88.
MurrayJ.MurrayL. (2010). Parental incarceration, attachment and child psychopathology. Attachment & Human Development, 12(4), 289–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/14751790903416889
OwenB. A. (1998). In the mix: Struggle and survival in a women’s prison. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
91.
PazY.OrlitskyT.Roth-HananiaR.Zahn-WaxlerC.DavidovM. (2021). Predicting externalizing behavior in toddlerhood from early individual differences in empathy. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 62(1), 66–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13247
92.
PetersonB.CramerL.FontaineJ. (2019). Policies and practices for children of incarcerated parents: Summarizing what we know and do not know. In Handbook on children with incarcerated parents (pp. 331–343). Springer.
93.
PleckJ. H. (1997). Paternal involvement. In LambMe. E. (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (pp. 66–103). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
94.
PleckJ. H. (2010). Paternal involvement: Revised conceptualization and theoretical linkages with child outcomes. In LambM. E. (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (pp. 58–89). Wiley.
95.
PoehlmannJ.DallaireD.LoperA. B.ShearL. D. (2010). Children’s contact with their incarcerated parents: Research findings and recommendations. American Psychologist, 65(6), 575.
96.
Poehlmann-TynanJ.PritzlK. (2019). Parent–child visits when parents are incarcerated in prison or jail. In Handbook on children with incarcerated parents (pp. 131–147). Springer.
97.
PorterS. R.VoorheisJ. L.SabolW. (2017). Correctional facility and inmate locations: Urban and rural status patterns (No. 2017-08). Center for Economic Studies, U.S. Census Bureau.
98.
RosenbaumP. R.RubinD. B. (1983). The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika, 70(1), 41–55.
99.
RosenbaumP. R.RubinD. B. (1984). Reducing bias in observational studies using subclassification on the propensity score. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 79(387), 516–524.
100.
RosenbaumP. R.RubinD. B. (1985). Constructing a control group using multivariate matched sampling methods that incorporate the propensity score. The American Statistician, 39(1), 33–38.
101.
Rutgers University-Newark, School of Public Affairs and Administration (SPAA), & Economic Development Research Group. (2011). Assessing the Impact of InsideOut Dad™ on Newark Community Education Centers (CEC) Residential Reentry Center Residents.
SchmidT. J.JonesR. S. (1993). Ambivalent actions: Prison adaptations strategies of first- time, short-term inmates. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 21, 439–463. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124193021004002
104.
ShawM. (2019). The reproduction of social disadvantage through educational demobilization: A critical analysis of parental incarceration. Critical Criminology, 27(2), 275–290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-018-09427
105.
ShlaferR.DuweG.HindtL. (2019). Parents in prison and their minor children: Comparisons between state and national estimates. The Prison Journal, 99(3), 310–328. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0032885519836996
106.
ShlaferR. J.DavisL.HindtL.WeymouthL.CuthrellH.BurnsonC.Poehlmann-TynanJ. (2020). Fathers in jail and their minor children: Paternal characteristics and associations with father-child contact. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(3), 791–801. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10826-020-01696-3
107.
ShlaferR. J.LoperA. B.SchillmoellerL. (2015). Introduction and literature review: Is parent–child contact during parental incarceration beneficial? In Poehlmann (Ed.), Children’s contact with incarcerated parents (pp. 1–21). Springer.
108.
ShlaferR. J.PoehlmannJ. (2010). Attachment and caregiving relationships in families affected by parental incarceration. Attachment & Human Development, 12(4), 395–415.
109.
Skora HorganE.Poehlmann-TynanJ. (2020). In-home video chat for young children and their incarcerated parents. Journal of Children and Media, 14(3), 400–406. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2020.1792082
SwansonC. C. K. M. (2013). Incarcerated fathers and their children: Perceptions of barriers to their relationships. The Prison Journal, 93(4), 453–474. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885513501024
112.
SykesB. L.PettitB. (2014). Mass incarceration, family complexity, and the reproduction of childhood disadvantage. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 654, 127–149. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716214526345
113.
TascaM. (2015). The Gatekeepers of contact: Child–caregiver dyads and parental prison visitation. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 43(6), 739–758. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854815613528
114.
TascaM.WrightK. A.TuranovicJ. J.WhiteC.RodriguezN. (2016). Moving visitation research forward: The Arizona prison visitation project. Criminology, Criminal Justice Law & Society, 17, 55.
115.
TaylorH.FlynnC.HarriganS.BartelsL.DennisonS. (2023). Carer views on father-child contact in the context of imprisonment during the COVID-19 pandemic: Implications for the use of video visits. Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 35(4), 415–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/10345329.2023.2225244
WarrenS. L.HustonL.EgelandB.SroufeL. A. (1997). Child and adolescent anxiety disorders and early attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 637–644. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199705000-00014
118.
WildemanC. (2010). Paternal incarceration and children’s physically aggressive behaviors: Evidence from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Social Forces, 89(1), 285–309. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2010.0055
