This study examines the effects of parents’ harsh parenting and co-parenting on parental engagement. 4,049 low-income married couples participating in the Supporting Healthy Marriage (SHM) evaluation study were analyzed using the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model, which identifies how one parent’s harsh parenting and co-parenting behaviors influence their own parental engagement (actor-effect) and how their partner’s behaviors influence the parent’s engagement (partner-effect). More frequent maternal harsh parenting was associated with decreased levels of maternal engagement (actor-effect). The positive effects of co-parenting on each parent’s own parental engagement (actor-effect) were more substantial than the influence of their partner’s co-parenting on the engagement (partner-effect). To boost parental engagement, it is recommended to consider interdependent family dynamics, including actor and partner effects on parenting practices.
ArbuckleJ. L. (2022). Amos (Version 28.0) [Computer program]. IBM SPSS.
2.
CabreraN. J.ShannonJ. D.VogelC.Tamis-LeMondaC.RyanR. M.Brooks-GunnJ.VogelC.RaikesH.Tamis-LeMondaC.CohenR. (2004). Low-income fathers’ involvement in their toddlers’ lives: Biological fathers from the Early Head Start research and evaluation study. Fathering: A Journal of Theory, Research & Practice about Men as Fathers, 2(1), 5–30.
3.
CaiZ.WangM.WangF. (2021). Actor-partner analyses of the associations between harsh discipline and parent-child relationships in China. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36, 9691–9708. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519870154
4.
ChangL.SchwartzD.DodgeK. A.McBride-ChangC. (2003). Harsh parenting in relation to child emotion regulation and aggression. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 598–606. https://doi/10.1037/0893-3200.17.4.598
5.
ChoiJ. K.BecherE. H. (2019). Supportive coparenting, parenting stress, harsh parenting, and child behavior problems in nonmarital families. Family Process, 58(2), 404–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12373
6.
ChungG.SmithQ.FreyJ.LanierP. (2021). Associations between depression and parenting of fathers in Head Start and parental self-efficacy as a protective factor. Children and Youth Services Review, 120, 105758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105758
7.
CoxM. J.PaleyB. (2003). Understanding families as systems. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(5), 193–196.
8.
Coyl-ShepherdD. D.NewlandL. A. (2013). Mothers’ and fathers’ couple and family contextual influences, parent involvement, and school-age child attachment. Early Child Development and Care, 183(3-4), 553–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2012.711599
9.
CrapoJ. S.TurnerJ. J.BradfordK.HigginbothamB. J. (2023). An actor-partner interdependence model of parenting difficulties over time in stepfamilies. Family Process, 62(2), 653–670. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12786
10.
CunninghamA. E. (2005). Vocabulary growth through independent reading and reading aloud to children. In HiebertE. H.KamilM. L. (Eds.), Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice (pp. 45–68). Lawrence Erlbaum.
11.
DuursmaE.AugustynM.ZuckermanB. (2008). Reading aloud to children: The evidence. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 93, 554–557. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2006.106336
12.
El NokaliN. E.BachmanH. J.Votruba-DrzalE. (2010). Parent involvement and children’s academic and social development in elementary school. Child Development, 81(3), 988–1005. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01447.x
13.
FaganJ. (2022). Longitudinal associations between early risk, father engagement, and coparenting and low-income fathers’ engagement with children in middle childhood. Journal of Family Issues, 43(10), 2745–2766. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X211033926
14.
FaganJ.CabreraN. (2012). Longitudinal and reciprocal associations between coparenting conflict and father engagement. Journal of Family Psychology, 26(6), 1004–1011. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029998
15.
FaganJ.PalkovitzR. (2019). Coparenting and father engagement among low-income parents: Actor–partner interdependence model. Journal of Family Psychology, 33(8), 894–904. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000563
16.
FeinbergM. E. (2003). The internal structure and ecological context of coparenting: A framework for research and intervention. Parenting, Science and Practice, 3(2), 95–131. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327922PAR030201
17.
FitzpatrickJ.GareauA.LafontaineM. F.GaudreauP. (2016). How to use the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM) to estimate different dyadic patterns in Mplus: A step-by-step tutorial. The Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 12, 74–86. https://doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.12.1.p074
18.
FleckmanJ. M.TaylorC. A.StorerH. L.AndrinopoulosK.WeilL. E. G.Rubin-MillerL.TheallK. P. (2018). Breaking the mold: Socio-ecologic factors to influence the development of non-harsh parenting strategies to reduce risk for child physical abuse. Children and Youth Services Review, 94, 274–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.10.019
19.
GaubertJ. M.GubitsD.AldersonD. P.KnoxV. (2012). The supporting healthy marriage evaluation: Final implementation findings. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/opre/supp_final.pdf
GordonI.FeldmanR. (2008). Synchrony in the triad: A micro-level process model of coparenting and parent-child interactions. Family Process, 47(4), 465–679.
22.
HanJ.LeeH. (2020). Actor and partner effects of parenting stress and co-parenting on marital conflict among parents of children with atopic dermatitis. BMC Pediatrics, 20, Article 141. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-020-02035-7
23.
HentgesR. F.WangM.WangM.-T. (2018). Gender differences in the developmental cascade from harsh parenting to educational attainment: An evolutionary perspective. Child Development, 89(2), 397–413. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12719
24.
HindmanA. H.MorrisonF. J. (2012). Differential contributions of three parenting dimensions to preschool literacy and social skills in a middle-income sample. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 58(2), 191–223. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23098462
25.
HsuehJ.VirginiaK. (2014). Supporting healthy marriage evaluation: Eight sites within the United States, 2003-2013. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2014-12-19. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR34420.v2
26.
HuL. T.BentlerP. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
27.
JacksonA. P.ChoiJ.PrestonK. S. J. (2019). Harsh parenting and black boys’ behavior problems: Single mothers’ parenting stress and nonresident fathers’ involvement. Family Relations, 68(4), 436–449. https://doi-org/10.1111/fare.12373
28.
KelleyH. H.ThibautJ. (1978). Interpersonal relations: A theory of interdependence. Wiley.
29.
KelleyM. L.BravoA. J.BraitmanA. L.PriceR. A.WhiteT. D. (2016). Mental health symptoms and parenting among father-only and dual substance use disorder couples. Journal of Family Issues, 39, 796–816. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X16680014
30.
KennyD. A.LedermannT. (2010). Detecting, measuring, and testing dyadic patterns in the actor–partner interdependence model. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(3), 359–366. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019651
31.
KimH. K.PearsK. C.FisherP. A.ConnellyC. D.LandsverkJ. A. (2010). Trajectories of maternal harsh parenting in the first 3 years of life. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34, 897–906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.06.002
32.
KoehnA. J.KernsK. A. (2018). Parent–child attachment: Meta-analysis of associations with parenting behaviors in middle childhood and adolescence. Attachment & Human Development, 20(4), 378–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2017.1408131
33.
LambM. E.PleckJ. H.CharnovE. L.LevineJ. A. (1987). A biosocial perspective on paternal behavior and involvement. In LancasterJ. B.AltmannJ.RossiA. S.SherrodL. R. (Eds.), Parenting across the lifespan: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 111–142). Aldine Publishing Co.
34.
LeeJ. Y.VollingB. L.LeeS. J.AltschulI. (2020). Longitudinal relations between coparenting and father engagement in low-income residential and nonresidential father families. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(2), 226–236. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000612
35.
MacKenzieM. J.NicklasE.Brooks-GunnJ.WaldfogelJ. (2014). Repeated exposure to high-frequency spanking and child externalizing behavior across the first decade: A moderating role for cumulative risk. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38, 1895–1901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.11.004
36.
MarsiglioW.AmatoP.DayR. D.LambM. E. (2000). Scholarship on fatherhood in the 1990s and beyond. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(4), 1173–1191.
37.
MastenA. S. (2018). Resilience theory and research on children and families: Past, present, and promise. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 10(1), 12–31.
38.
MastenA. S.CicchettiD. (2010). Developmental cascades. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 491–495.
39.
McLeodB. D.WoodJ. J.WeiszJ. R. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood anxiety: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(2), 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.09.002
40.
MillerS. (2013). Living in two worlds: Torn identities and gender expectations of Latinas in the United States. UC Merced Undergraduate Research Journal, 5(1), 134–146. https://doi.org/10.5070/M451020764
41.
MinuchinP. (1985). Families and individual development: Provocations from the field of family therapy. Child Development, 56(2), 289–302. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129720
42.
PeltzJ. S.RoggeR. D.Sturge-AppleM. L. (2018). Transactions within the family: Coparenting mediates associations between parents’ relationship satisfaction and the parent-child relationship. Journal of Family Psychology, 32, 553–564. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000413
43.
PruettM. K.PruettK.CowanC. P.CowanP. A. (2017). Enhancing father involvement in low-income families: A couples group approach to preventive intervention. Child Development, 88(2), 398–407. https://doi-org/10.1111/cdev.12744
44.
QiW. (2019). Harsh parenting and child aggression: Child moral disengagement as the mediator and negative parental attribution as the moderator. Child Abuse & Neglect, 91, 12–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.02.007
SheridanS. M.KnocheL. L.KupzykK. A.EdwardsC. P.MarvinC. A. (2011). A randomized trial examining the effects of parent engagement on early language and literacy: The Getting Ready intervention. Journal of School Psychology, 49(3), 361–383.
47.
SicouriG.TullyL.CollinsD.BurnM.SargeantK.FrickP.AndersonV.HawesD.KimonisE.MoulC.LenrootR.DaddsM. (2018). Toward father-friendly parenting interventions: A qualitative study. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 39, 218–231. https://doi.org/10.1002/anzf.1307
48.
SilveiraF.ShaferK.DufurM. J.RobersonM. (2021). Ethnicity and parental discipline practices: A cross-national comparison. Journal of Marriage and Family, 83(3), 644–666. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12715
49.
SlaughterJ.DavisJ. B.NagoshiC. (2019). Effects of paternal incarceration on father involvement on child behavior outcomes at middle childhood. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(10), 2891–2900. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01468-8
50.
TeubertD.PinquartM. (2010). The association between coparenting and child adjustment: A meta-analysis. Parenting: Science and Practice, 10(4), 286–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2010.492040
51.
TrahanM. H. (2018). Paternal self-efficacy and father involvement: A bi-directional relationship. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 19(4), 624–634. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000130
52.
TramonteL.GauthierA. H.WillmsJ. D. (2015). Engagement and guidance: The effects of maternal parenting practices on children’s development. Journal of Family Issues, 36(3), 396–420. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X13489959
53.
WangM.DuX.ZhouZ. (2016). Harsh parenting: Meaning, influential factors and mechanisms. Advances in Psychological Science, 24, 379–391. https://doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1042.2016.00379
54.
WangJ.SchoppeS. S. J.YanJ.YoonS. (2023). Examining parents’ susceptibility: Coparenting relationships and parental involvement in low-income families. Journal of Marriage & Family, 85(2), 458–476. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12901
55.
WangF.WangM.WangT.WangZ. (2021). Harsh parental discipline, parent-child attachment, and peer attachment in late childhood and early adolescence. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 30, 196–205. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01860-9
56.
WickhamR. E.KneeC. R. (2012). Interdependence theory and the actor-partner interdependence model: Where theory and method converge. Personality and Social Psychology Reviews, 16(4), 375–393.
57.
WolfordS. N.CooperA. N.McWeyL. M. (2019). Maternal depression, maltreatment history, and child outcomes: The role of harsh parenting. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 89(2), 181–191. https://doi-org/10.1037/ort0000365
58.
YanJ.Schoppe-SullivanS. J.Kamp DushC. M. (2018). Maternal coparenting attitudes and toddler adjustment: Moderated mediation through father’s positive engagement. Parenting, Science and Practice, 18(2), 67–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2018.1444130
59.
YoonS.BellamyJ. L.KimW.YoonD. (2018). Father involvement and behavior problems among preadolescents at risk of maltreatment. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(2), 494–504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0890-6
