Human services professionals from all fields may be exposed to dangerous and even traumatic experiences while fulfilling their job responsibilities. Despite the data identifying trauma exposure as a workforce problem, the literature focusing on policy and practice interventions is sparse. Using a safety culture framework, this article describes a case example of one statewide public child welfare agency that utilized innovative policies as one driver of a systemic shift toward enhanced safety culture in an attempt to mitigate the effects of trauma exposure among child welfare workers. Practice implications, next steps, and future research are discussed.
BellH.KulkarniS.DaltonL. (2003). Organizational prevention of vicarious trauma. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 84(4), 463–470. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.131
3.
Ben-PoratA. (2017). Competence of trauma social workers: The relationship between field of practice and secondary traumatization, personal and environmental variables. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(8), 1291–1309. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515588536
4.
BiggartL.WardE.CookL.SchofieldG. (2017). The team as a secure base: Promoting resilience and competence in child and family social work. Children and Youth Services Review, 83, 119–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.10.031
BloomS. L. (2013). The sanctuary model: A best-practices approach to organizational change. In VandiverV. (Ed.), Best practices in community mental health: A pocket guide (pp. 303–314). Lyceum Books. http://sanctuaryweb.com/Publications/PublicationsbyTopic.aspx
7.
BoberT.RegehrC. (2006). Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they work?Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 6(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1093/brief-treatment/mhj001
8.
BrideB. E. (2007). Prevalence of secondary traumatic stress among social workers. Social Work, 52(1), 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/52.1.63
9.
BrideB. E.JonesJ. L.MacmasterS. A. (2007). Correlates of secondary traumatic stress in child protective services workers. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work, 4(3–4), 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1300/J394v04n03_05
10.
BrideB.E.KintzleS. (2011). Secondary traumatic stress, job satisfaction, and occupational commitment in substance abuse counselors. Traumatology, 17(1), 22–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765610395617
BrideB. E.RobinsonM. M.YegidisB.FigleyC. R. (2004). Development and validation of the Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale. Research on Social Work Practice, 14(1), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731503254106
CaringiJ. C.HardimanE. R.WeldonP.FletcherS. (2017). Secondary traumatic stress and licensed clinical social workers. Traumatology, 23(2), 186–195. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000061
15.
Child Welfare System. (2016a). Family Services Policy 250: Staff safety. Vermont Department for Children and Families, Family Services Policy Manual. Retrieved from https://dcf.vermont.gov/fsd/policies
16.
Child Welfare System. (2016b). Family Services Policy 251: HOPE (Helping Our Peers Excel) team. [BLINDED FOR REVIEW]Policy Manual. https://[BLINDED FOR REVIEW]
17.
ChoiG. (2017). Secondary traumatic stress and empowerment among social workers working with family violence or sexual assault survivors. Journal of Social Work, 17(3), 358–378. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017316640194
18.
Collins-CamargoC.RoyseD. (2010). A study of the relationships among effective supervision, organizational culture promoting evidence-based practice, and worker self-efficacy in public child welfare. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 4(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548730903563053
19.
ConradD.Kellar-GuentherY. (2006). Compassion fatigue, burnout, and compassion satisfaction among Colorado child protection workers. Child Abuse & Neglect, 30(10), 1071–1080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.03.009
20.
CornilleT. A.MeyersT. W. (1999). Secondary traumatic stress among child protective service workers: Prevalence, severity and predictive factors. Traumatology, 5(1), 15–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/153476569900500105
21.
CraigC. D.SprangG. (2010). Compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, and burnout in a national sample of trauma treatment therapists. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 23(3), 319–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800903085818
CullM. J. (2019, May). A strong culture of safety [Keynote presentation]. Vermont Family Services Division Statewide Conference, Killington, VT, United States.
24.
CullM. J.RzepnickiT. L.O’DayK.EpsteinR. A. (2013). Applying principles from safety science to improve child protection. Child Welfare, 92(2), 179–195.
25.
DaganS. W.Ben-PoratA.ItzhakyH. (2016). Child protection workers dealing with child abuse: The contribution of personal, social and organizational resources to secondary traumatization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 51, 203–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.10.008
26.
DomboE. A.BlomeW. W. (2016). Vicarious trauma in child welfare workers: A study of organizational responses. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 10(5), 505–523. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2016.1206506
27.
FigleyC. R. (1993, February). Compassion stress and the family therapist. Family Therapy News, 18.
28.
FigleyC. R. (1995). Compassion fatigue as secondary traumatic stress disorder: An overview. In FigleyC. R. (Ed.), Compassion fatigue: Coping with secondary traumatic stress disorder in those who treat the traumatized (pp. 1–20). Brunner/Mazel.
29.
FigleyC. R. (2002). Compassion fatigue: Psychotherapists’ chronic lack of self care. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(11), 1433–1441. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10090
30.
FlemingM.HarveyK.CreganB. (2018). Safety Culture research and practice: A review of 30 years of research collaboration. Journal of Applied Behavioral Research, 23, Article e12155. https://doi.org/10.1111/jabr.12155
GlissonC.HemmelgarnA. (1998). The effects of organizational climate and interorganizational coordination on the quality and outcomes of children’s service systems. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22(5), 401–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0145-2134(98)00005-2
33.
HalliganM.ZecevicA. (2011). Safety culture in healthcare: A review of concepts, dimensions, measures, and progress. BMJ Quality & Safety, 20(4), 338–343. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjqs.2010.040964
34.
HandranJ. (2015). Trauma-informed systems of care: The role of organizational culture in the development of burnout, secondary traumatic stress, and compassion satisfaction. Journal of Social Welfare and Human Rights, 3(2), 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.15640/jswhr.v3n2a1
35.
HarrisonR. L.WestwoodM. J. (2009). Preventing vicarious traumatization of mental health therapists: Identifying protective practices. Psychotherapy Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 46(2), 203–219. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016081
36.
Health and Safety Commission. (1993). Advisory Committee on the Safety of Nuclear Installations (ACSNI) study group on human factors [3rd report: Organising for safety].
37.
HemmelgarnA. L.GlissonC.JamesL. R. (2006). Organizational culture and climate: Implications for services and interventions research. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 13(1), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2006.00008.x
HopkinsK. M.Cohen-CallowA.KimH. J.HwangJ. (2010). Beyond intent to leave: Using multiple outcome measures for assessing turnover in child welfare. Children and Youth Services Review, 32(10), 1380–1387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.06.006
40.
HuntS.GoddardC.CooperJ.LittlechildB.WildJ. (2016). “If I feel like this, how does the child feel?” Child protection workers, supervision, management and organisational responses to parental violence. Journal of Social Work Practice, 30(1), 5–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650533.2015.1073145
41.
KimH.KaoD. (2014). A meta-analysis of turnover intention predictors among U.S. child welfare workers. Children and Youth Services Review, 47(3), 214–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.09.015
42.
KleinC. J.Riggenbach-HaysJ. J.SollenbergerL. M.HarneyD. M.McGarveyJ. S. (2018). Quality of life and compassion satisfaction in clinicians: A pilot intervention study for reducing compassion fatigue. American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Medicine®, 35(6), 882–888. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049909117740848
43.
KruzichJ. M.MienkoJ. A.CourtneyM. E. (2014). Individual and work group influences on turnover intention among public child welfare workers: The effects of work group psychological safety. Children and Youth Services Review, 42, 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.03.005
44.
LamotheJ.CouvretteA.LebrunG.Yale-SoulièreG.RoyC.GuayS.GeoffrionS. (2018). Violence against child protection workers: A study of workers’ experiences, attributions, and coping strategies. Child Abuse & Neglect, 81, 308–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.04.027
McCannI. L.PearlmanL. A. (1990). Vicarious traumatization: A framework for understanding the psychological effects of working with victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3(1), 131–149. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00975140
47.
McFaddenP.CampbellA.TaylorB. (2015). Resilience and burnout in child protection social work: Individual and organisational themes from a systematic literature review. British Journal of Social Work, 45(5), 1546–1563. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bct210
48.
MiddletonJ. S.PotterC. C. (2015). Relationship between vicarious traumatization and turnover among child welfare professionals. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 9, 195–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2015.1021987
49.
MillerB.SprangG. (2017). A components-based practice and supervision model for reducing compassion fatigue by affecting clinician experience. Traumatology, 23(2), 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000058
NewellJ. M.MacNeilG. A. (2010). Professional burnout, vicarious trauma, secondary traumatic stress, and compassion fatigue: A review of theoretical terms, risk factors, and preventive methods for clinicians and researchers. Best Practices in Mental Health: An International Journal, 6(2), 57–68.
53.
NewhillC. E.WexlerS. (1997). Client violence toward children and youth services social workers. Children and Youth Services Review, 19(3), 195–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0190-7409(97)00014-5
54.
NordlöfH.WiitavaaraB.WinbladU.WijkK.WesterlingR. (2015). Safety culture and reasons for risk-taking at a large steel-manufacturing company: Investigating the worker perspective. Safety Science, 73, 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2014.11.020
RegehrC.HemsworthD.LeslieB.HoweP.ChauS. (2004). Predictors of post-traumatic distress in child welfare workers: A linear structural equation model. Children and Youth Services Review, 26(4), 331–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2004.02.003
57.
ReyL. D. (1996). What social workers need to know about client violence. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 77(1), 33–39.
58.
RobsonA.CossarJ.QuayleE. (2014). Critical commentary: The impact of work-related violence towards social workers in children and family services. British Journal of Social Work, 44(4), 924–936. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcu015
59.
RochelleS.BuonannoL. (2018). Charting the attitudes of county child protection staff in a post-crisis environment. Children and Youth Services Review, 86, 166–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.01.032
60.
SaakvitneK. W. (2002). Shared trauma: The therapist’s increased vulnerability. Psychoanalytic Dialogues: The International Journal of Relational Perspectives, 12, 443–449. https://doi.org/10.1080/10481881209348678
61.
SalloumA.KondratD. C.JohncoC.OlsonK. R. (2015). The role of self-care on compassion satisfaction, burnout and secondary trauma among child welfare workers. Children and Youth Services Review, 49, 54–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.12.023
62.
ShinJ. (2011). Client violence and its negative impacts on work attitudes of child protection workers compared to community service workers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(16), 3338–3360. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510393002
63.
SlatteryS. M.GoodmanL. A. (2009). Secondary traumatic stress among domestic violence advocates: Workplace risk and protective factors. Violence Against Women, 15, 1358–1379. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801209347469
64.
SmithB. D. (2005). Job retention in child welfare: Effects of perceived organizational support, supervisor support, and intrinsic job value. Children and Youth Services Review, 27(2), 153–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2004.08.013
65.
SprangG.ClarkJ. J.Whitt-WoosleyA. (2007). Compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction, and burnout: Factors impacting a professional’s quality of life. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 12(3), 259–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325020701238093
66.
SprangG.CraigC.ClarkJ. (2011). Secondary traumatic stress and burnout in child welfare workers: A comparative analysis of occupational distress across professional groups. Child Welfare, 90(6), 149–168.
StearnsS.BenightC. C. (2016). Organizational factors in burnout and secondary traumatic stress. In BenightC.C. (Ed.), Secondary Trauma and Burnout in Military Behavioral Health Providers (pp. 85–113). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95103-1_5
69.
Strolin-GoltzmanJ. S.KollarS.SheaK.WalcottC.WardS. (2016). Building a landscape of resilience after workplace violence in public child welfare. Children and Youth Services Review, 71, 250–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.11.001
70.
Strolin-GoltzmanJ. S.McCarthyM.CarinigJ. (2006). Causes and effects of child welfare workforce turnover: Current state of knowledge and future directions. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 1(2), 29–52. https://doi.org/10.1300/J479v01n02_03
71.
Tennessee Department of Children’s Services. (n.d.). Safety culture toolkit: Strategies and tactics to support safe, reliable, and effective child welfare teams.
72.
VogusT.CullM.HengelbrokN.ModellS.EpsteinR. (2016). Assessing safety culture in child welfare: Evidence from Tennessee. Children and Youth Services Review, 65, 94–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.03.020
73.
VogusT.SutcliffeK.WeicklK. (2010). Doing no harm: Enabling, enacting, and elaborating a culture of safety in health care. Academy of Management Perspectives, 24(4), 60–77.
74.
YassiA.HancockT. (2005). Patient safety—Worker safety: Building a culture of safety to improve healthcare worker and patient well-being. Healthcare Quarterly, 8, 32–38. https://doi.org/10.12927/hcq.17659
