In a qualitative study of the implementation of the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) policy of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), one singular finding stood out: Where significant change was taking place, it was educational leaders who were making it happen. Through a clear focus on values, a thorough knowledge of the system, and having the conceptual, theoretical, and practical skills involved in sophisticated organizational change, these administrators spoke enthusiastically and confidently of their efforts. Individuals and associations outside this administration-dominated group played relatively nominal roles in effecting change.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Biklen, D. (1985). Achieving the complete school: Strategies for effective main-streaming. New York: Columbia University Press.
2.
Crandall, D. P., Eiseman, J. W., & Louis, K. S. (1986). Strategic planning issues that bear on the success of school improvement efforts. Educational Administration Quarterly, 22(3), 21–53.
3.
Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative & quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
4.
Cziko, G. (1989). Unpredictability and indeterminism in human behavior: Arguments and implications for educational research. Educational Researcher, 18(3), 17–25.
5.
Danielson, L. C., & Bellamy, G. T. (1989). State variation in placement of children with handicaps in segregated environments. Exceptional Children, 55(5), 448–455.
6.
Dewey, J. (1980). The quest for certainty: A study of the relation of knowledge to action. New York: Perigee Books.
7.
Elmore, R. F. (1980). Complexity and control: What legislators and administrators can do about implementing public policy. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
8.
Elmore, R. F., & McLaughlin, M. W. (1988). Steady work: Policy, practice and the reform of American education. Report prepared for the National Institute of Education. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
9.
Epps, S., & Tindal, G. (1987). The effectiveness of differential programming in serving students with mild handicaps: Placement options and instructional programming. In M. C. Wang, M. C. Reynolds, & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Handbook of special education: Research and practice, Vol. 1. (pp. 213–250). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press.
10.
Friedmann, J. (1987). Planning in the public domain. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
11.
Fullan, M. G. (1991). The new meaning of educational change. New York: Teachers College Press.
12.
Fullan, M. G. (1993). Change forces: Probing the depths of educational reform. London: Falmer Press.
13.
Fullan, M. G., & Miles, M. (1992). Getting reform right: What works and what doesn't. Phi Delta Kappan, 73(1), 744–752.
14.
Fuhrman, S., Clune, W., & Elmore, R. (1991). Research on education reform: Lessons on the implementation of policy. In A. Odden (Ed.), Education policy implementation (pp. 197–218). Albany: State University of New York Press.
15.
Gartner, A., & Lipsky, D. K. (1992). Beyond special education: Toward a quality system for all students. In T. Hehir & T. Latus (Eds.), Special education at the century's end: Evolution and theory of practice since 1970 (pp. 123–158). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review.
16.
Geller, H., & Johnston, A. P. (1990). Policy as linear and nonlinear science. Journal of Education Policy, 5(1), 49–65.
17.
Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine.
18.
Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A. (1992). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction. White Plains, NY: Longman.
19.
Glickman, C. (1993). Renewing America's schools: A guide for school-based action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
20.
Goggin, M. L. (1987). Policy design and the politics of implementation. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.
21.
Goodlad, J. I. (1993). Access to knowledge. In J. I. Goodlad & T. C. Lovitt (Eds.), Integrating general and special education (pp. 1–22). New York: Macmillan.
22.
Hasazi, S., Johnston, A., Liggett, A., & Schattman, R. (1994). A qualitative policy study of the least restrictive environment provision of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act. Exceptional Children, 60(6), 491–507.
23.
Kirst, M. W. (1995). Recent research on intergovernmental relations in education policy. Educational Researcher, 24(9), 18–22.
24.
Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
25.
Lovitt, T. C. (1993). Retrospect and prospect. In J. I. Goodlad & T. C. Lovitt (Eds.), Integrating general and special education (pp. 253–274). New York: Macmillan.
26.
Majone, G. (1989). Evidence, argument, and persuasion in the policy process. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
27.
Marsh, D. D., & Crocker, P. S. (1991). School restructuring: Implementing middle school reform. In A. Odden (Ed.), Education policy implementation (pp. 259–278). Albany: State University of New York Press.
28.
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. (1989). Designing qualitative research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
29.
McDonnell, L. (1991). Ideas and values in implementation analysis: The case of teacher policy. In A. Odden (Ed.), Education policy implementation (pp. 214–258). Albany: State University of New York Press.
30.
McDonnell, L., & Elmore, R. (1987). Getting the job done: Alternative policy instruments. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(2), 133–152.
31.
McLaughlin, M. (1987). Learning from experience: Lessons from policy implementation. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(2), 171–178.
32.
Moore, M. T., Goertz, M. E., & Hartle, T. W. (1991). Interaction of state and federal programs. In A. Odden (Ed.), Education policy implementation (pp. 81–104). Albany: State University of New York Press.
33.
Moustakas, C. (1990). Heuristic research: Design, methodology, and applications. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
34.
Odden, A. (Ed.). (1991). Education policy implementation. Albany: State University of New York Press.
35.
Osborne, D., & Gaebler, T. (1992). Reinventing government. New York: Addison Wesley.
36.
Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
37.
Pressman, J. L., & Wildavsky, A. (1983). Implementation. Berkeley: University of California Press.
38.
Reynolds, M., Wang, M., & Walberg, H. (1987). The necessary restructuring of special and regular education. Exceptional Children, 53(5), 391–398.
39.
Sailor, W., Wilson, W. C., & Gerry, M. (1991). Policy implications of emergent full inclusion models for the education of students with severe disabilities. In M. C. Wang, M. C. Reynolds, & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Handbook of special education: Research and practice, Vol. 4. (pp. 175–196). Elmsford, NY: Pergammon Press.
40.
Sarason, S. B. (1995). Parental involvement and the political principle. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
41.
Schlecty, P. (1990). Schools for the 21st century: Leadership imperatives for educational reform. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
42.
Schon, D. (1971). Beyond the stable state. New York: W. W. Norton.
43.
Schon, D., & Rein, M. (1994). Frame reflection. New York: Basic Books.
44.
Skrtic, T. (1991). Beyond special education: A critical analysis of professional culture and school organization. Denver, CO: Love Publishing.
45.
Skrtic, T. (1992). The special education paradox: Equity as the way to excellence. In T. Hehir & T. Latus (Eds.), Special education at the century's end: Evolution and theory of practice since 1970 (pp. 203–274). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review.
46.
Stainback, S., & Stainback, W. (1990). Inclusive schooling. In W. Stainback & S. Stainback (Eds.), Support networks for inclusive schooling (pp. 3–24). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
47.
Stainback, W., & Stainback, S. (1984). A rationale for the merger of special and regular education. Exceptional Children, 51(2), 102–111.
48.
Wang, M., Reynolds, M., & Walberg, H. (1988). Integrating the children of the second system. Phi Delta Kappan, 71(3), 248–251.
49.
Weatherly, R., & Lipsky, M. (1977). Street-level bureaucrats and institutional innovation: Implementing special education reform. Harvard Educational Review, 47(2), 171–197.
50.
Wildavsky, A. (1979). Speaking truth to power: The art and craft of policy analysis. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.
51.
Will, M. C. (1986). Educating children with learning problems: A shared responsibility. Exceptional Children, 52(5), 411–415.
52.
Wohlstetter, P., & Smyer, R. (1992). Decentralization strategies: A review of the effective school's literature (Working paper # 30). University of Southern California, Consortium for Policy Research in Education, Finance Center.
