From Neutral to Drive

See O'Neill Nick Rice Simon and Douglas Roger (eds), Retreat from Injustice: Human Rights Law in Australia (2004) 476.

Leeth v Commonwealth (1992) 174 CLR 455, Mason CJ Dawson & McHugh JJ , 468, quoted in O'Neill, above n 1, 476.

See Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth); Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (Cth); Disability Discrimination Act 1982 (Cth) & Age Discrimination Act 2004 (Cth).

See Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW); Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (WA); Equal Opportunity Act 1995 (Vic).

Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (WA), for example, protects against discrimination on the basis of marital status (s 9) and discrimination in sporting (s 35) and club contexts (s 35ZB).

See, generally, the Disability Discrimination Act 1982 (Cth).

Gaze Beth , ‘Context and Interpretation in Anti-Discrimination Law’ (2002) 26 Melbourne University Law Review 325, 329.

See ibid, 326–327.

See s 8 of the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth) and s 7D of the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (Cth).

In the context of special measures to overcome racial discrimination see Gerhardy v Brown (1985) 159 CLR 70, and in the context of special measures to overcome sex discrimination see the decision by then Justice Crennan of the Federal Court in Jacomb v Australian Municipal Administrative Clerical and Services Union [2004] FCA 1250.

See Commissioner Zita Antonios, Commonwealth Racial Discrimination Commissioner, Alcohol Report: Racial Discrimination Act 1975, Human Rights and the Distribution of Alcohol, 1995 http://www.humanrights.gov.au/racial_discrimination/report/alcohol.html at 29 February 2008.

See, for example, Tennant Creek Trading Pty Ltd, Whyteross Pty Ltd, Charles Keith Hallett and Tennant Creek Hotel Pty Ltd v The Liquor Commission of the Northern Territory of Australia and Julalikari Counil Aboriginal Corporation No SC 179 of 1994, [1995] NTSC 50 (7 April 1995).

IW v City of Perth (1997) 191 CLR 1; Purvis v New South Wales Department of Education and Training (2003) 202 ALR 133.

In the context of race and nationality see Metwally v University of Wollongong (1984) EOC 92–030. In the context of gender characteristics see the English case of London Underground Ltd v Edwards (No. 2) [1997] IRLR 157 EAT.

Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission, ”I want respect and equality’: A Summary of Consultations with Civil Society on Racism in Australia, (2001) http://www.humanrights.gov.au/racial_discrimination/consultations/consultations.html at 29 February 2008.

Ibid.

Quoted in O'Neill , above n 1, 483.

See Djokic v Sinclair (1994) EIC 92–643 relating to complaints heard before the HREOC under the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (Cth) and the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth). See also Fares v Box Hill College of TAFE (1992) EOC 92–391.

See Crenshaw Kimberlé , ‘Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Anti-Discrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics’ (1989) University of Chicago Legal Forum extracted in Christopher McCrudden Anti-Discrimination Law (2004).

708 F2d 475.

Crenshaw, above n 19, 480. See also DeGraffenreid v General Motors 413 F Supp 142 (E D Mo 1976) where the United States District Court rejected an attempt by five black women to consolidate into a single claim alleged instances of sex and racial discrimination.

Crenshaw, above n 19, 480. See also Holzleithner Elisabeth , ‘Mainstreaming Equality: Dis/Entangling Grounds of Discrimination’ (2004–2005) 14 Transnational Law and Contemporary Social Problems 928, 946.

Above n 18.

Nolan Mark , ‘Some legal and psychological benefits of a nationally uniform and general anti-discrimination law in Australia’ (2000) 6 Australian Journal of Human Rights 79, 103.

See McCrudden , above n 19, xxv.

Sharpe Andrew , ‘Transgender Performance and the Discriminating Gaze: A Critique of Anti-Discrimination Regulatory Regimes’ (1999) 8 Social & Legal Studies 5.

[1997] IRLR 157 EAT.

(1984) EOC 92–030.

See O'Neill Rice and Douglas , above n 1, 486–487.

Collins Hugh ‘Discrimination, Equality and Social Inclusion’ (2003) 66 The Modern Law Review 16, 30.

James v Eastleigh Borough Council [1990] 3 WLR 55. See also Barmes Lizzie & Ashtiany Sue ‘The Diversity Approach to Achieving Equality: Potential and Pitfalls’ (2003) 32 Industrial Law Journal 274.

Commissioner Antonios, above n 11, 28.

Purvis v New South Wales (Department of Education and Training) (2003) 202 ALR 133.

Edwards Samantha , ‘Notes and Comments: Purvis in the High Court: Behaviour, Disability and the Meaning of Direct Discrimination’ (2004) 26 Sydney Law Review 639, 646.

Ibid, 649.

Greycar Reg & Morgan Jenny , ‘Thinking about Equality’ (2004) 27 University of New South Wales Law Journal 833, 839.

Cowlishaw Gillian and Morris Barry (eds), Race Matters: Indigenous Australians and ‘Our’ Society (1997), 3. In the English context see Ellis Evelyn , EU Anti-Discrimination Law (2005) 3ff.

See the comments of Edwards, above n 34, 644. See also Gaze, above n 7.

New South Wales Law Reform Commission Report 92 (1999) – Review of the Anti- Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW) (NSW Law Reform Commission: Sydney, 1999) ch 3, recommendation 8 <http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lrc.nsf/pages/r92chp3> at 29 February 2008.

Ibid.

See Patmore's argument for a substantive rather than formal reading of anti-discrimination provisions: Patmore Glenn , ‘Moving Towards a Substantive Conception of the Anti-Discrimination Principle: Waters v Public Transport Corporation of Victoria Reconsidered’ (1999) 23 Melbourne University Law Review 121.

Hunyor Jonathon , ‘Skin-deep: Proof and Inferences of Racial Discrimination in Employment’ (2003) 25 Sydney Law Review 535.

See Dickson Elizabeth , ‘Disability Discrimination in Education: Purvis v New South Wales (Department of Education and Training), Amendments of the Education Provisions of the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (Cth) and the Formulation of Disability Standards for Education’ (2005) 24 The University of Queensland Law Journal 213, 213.

Street v Queensland Bar Association (1989) 168 CLR 461, Gaudron J 571.

New South Wales Law Reform Commission, above n 39, ch 3, 3.50.

Ibid, ch 3, 3.9.

Woodson Robert , ‘Affirmative Action is No Civil Right’ (1995–1996) 19 Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy 773, 775 & Maddox M ‘Affirmative Action: Liberal Accommodation or Radical Trojan Horse’ (1998–99) 14 Australian Journal of Legal Studies 1,8.

See Collins Hugh , ‘Social Inclusion: A Better Approach to Equality Issues?’ (2004–2005) 14 Transnational Law and Contemporary Social Problems 897 & Collins , above n 30.

Collins , above n 48, 913.

Ibid.

Collins , above n 30, 23.

See VanderVelde Lea (2004–2005) 14 Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 919.

Collins , above n 30, 27.

Behrendt Larissa , ‘Meeting at the Crossroads: Intersectionality, Affirmative Action and the Legacies of the Aborigines Protection Board’ (1997) 4 Australian Journal of Human Rights 101, 111.

See ibid, 111 and Collins , above n 48, 899.

See Behrendt , above n 54, 112 and Collins above n 48, 42–43.

Equal Opportunity Commission The Policy Framework for Substantive Equality (2004).

See Northern Ireland Act 1998 (UK) s 75 & Equality Commission for Northern Ireland http://www.equalityni.org at 29 February 2008.