Women as ‘Members of a Particular Social Group’

UNHCR, ‘Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons: Guidelines for Prevention and Response’ (May 2003) 15.

Charlesworth H. Chinkin C. Wright S. , ‘Feminist Approaches to International law’ in Beck R J Arend A C Vander Lugt R D , (eds), International Rules: Approaches from International law and International relations (1996), 265; Greatbatch Jacqueline , ‘The Gender Difference: Feminist Critiques of Refugee Discourse’ (1989) 1 International Journal of Refugee Law 518, 519; Castel Jacqueline , ‘Rape, Sexual Assault and the Meaning of Persecution’ (1992) 4 International Journal of Refugee Law 39.

(2000) 204 CLR 1, 45–46.

Migration Act 1958 (Cth) s 36.

See Horvath v Secretary of State for the Home Department (2000) 3 All ER 577, 580–581; Canada v Ward (1993) 2 SCR 689, 716–17; Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs v Khawar (2000) 101 FCR 501.

(2002) 210 CLR 1 [13] per Gleeson CJ.

Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs v Ndege (1999) FCA 783.

(2004) 205 ALR 487.

(2002) FCR 412.

Kalin Walter , ‘Non-State Agents of Persecution and the Inability of the State to Protect’ (2001) 15 Georgetown Immigration Law Journal 415, 416.

Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs v Respondents S/52/2003 (2004) HCA 18 (21 April 2004) [54].

Marx Reinhard , ‘The Notion of Persecution by Non-State Agents in German Jurisprudence’ (2001) 15 Georgetown Immigration Law Journal 447, 450.

Hathaway James , The Law of Refugee Status (1991) 128.

Kneebone Susan , ‘Women within the Refugee Construct… The Australian Experience’ (2005) 17 International Journal of Refugee Law 7.

The UNHCR has adopted that ‘states in the exercise of their sovereignty are free to adopt the interpretation that women asylum seekers who face harsh or inhuman treatment due to their having transgressed the social mores of the society in which they live may be considered as a “particular social group” within the meaning of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 United Nations Refugees Convention’: UNHCR, above n 1, 5.

Turk Volker Nicholson Frances , ‘Refugee Protection in International law: An Overall Perspective’ in Feller Erika Turk Volker Nicholson Frances (eds,) Refugee Protection in International Law: UNHCR's Global Consultations on International Protection (2003) 3, 17.

(2004) HCA 25 [36].

See also R v Immigration Appeal Tribunal; Ex parte Shah (1999) 2 AC 629 [657].

Applicant S v MIMIA , (2004) HCA 25 [408]; [410–411].

Turk Nicholson , above n 16.

(2005) FCA 942.

(2000) FCA 1026.

(2004) FCA 64.

(2000) FCA 1401.

Weheliye v MIMA (2001) FCA 1222.

Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs v Cali (2000) FCA 1026.

SZAYT v MIMIA (2005) FCA 857.

VXAJ v MIMIA (2006) FMCA 234.