This article aims to provide evidence that “rote learning” or “memorisation” is a complex construct and is deeply embedded in the East Asian culture. An in-depth understanding of this learning approach is increasingly crucial considering the complex demography of contemporary higher education nowadays. Not only is there a rise in the number of matured adult learners but also there is an increase in the number of international students (in particular students from the East). Despite the widening participation, there is an appalling lack of awareness of cultural differences in learning and teaching in Western higher education. International students from the Eastern cultures are often frowned at as ineffective rote learners. The current study, which adopted a culturally sensitive framework, provides verification that when adopting a memorisation approach, learners from the Eastern cultures could learn beyond “rote.” About 1,000 Malaysian Malay and Chinese adult learners who were engaging with professional development were involved in the current study. The data in the current study provides insightful evidence that when memorisation is a culturally ingrained approach, it can lead to deep understanding, even for nontraditional students like the adult learners.
Alexander, I.D. ( 2007). Multicultural teaching and learning resources for preparing future faculty in teaching in higher education. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 111(Fall), 27-33.
2.
Barbarous scratchings or universal system? The Chinese puzzle on paper. (2008, February 7). Times Higher Education. Retrieved February 19, 2009, from http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?sectioncode=26&storycode=400474
3.
Barnett, R. ( 2000). Supercomplexities and the curriculum. Studies in Education, 25, 255-265.
4.
Behling, O., & Law, K.S. ( 2000). Translating questionnaires and other research instruments: Problems and solutions (Sage University Papers Series on Qualitative Applications in Social Sciences, 07-131). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
5.
Bempechat, J., & Drago-Severson, E. (1999). Cross-cultural differences in academic achievement: Beyond etic conceptions of children’s understanding . Review of Educational Research, 69, 287-314.
6.
Biggs, J. ( 1987). Student approaches to learning and studying. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research .
7.
Biggs, J. ( 1990, July). Asian students’ approaches to learning: Implications for teaching overseas students. Paper presented at the Eighth Australasian Learning and Language Conference, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.
8.
Biggs, J. ( 1996). Western misperceptions of the Confucian heritage learning culture. In D. Watkins & J. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learners: Cultural and psychological and contextual influence (pp. 45-67). Melbourne , Australia: Australian Council for Educational Research .
9.
Biggs, J. ( 2003). Teaching for quality at university (2nd ed.). Berkshire, UK: Open University Press.
10.
Biggs, J., Kember, D., & Leung, D.Y.P. ( 2001). The revised two-factor Study Process Questionnaire: R-SPQ-2F . British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 133-149.
11.
Biggs, J., & Watkins, D. ( 1996). The Chinese learner in retrospect. In D. Watkins & J. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences. (pp. 260-285). Melbourne, Australia: Australian Council for Educational Research.
12.
Case, J.M. ( 2007). Alienation and engagement: Development of an alternative theoretical framework for understanding student learning. Higher Education, 55, 321-332.
13.
Chen, M.J. ( 2002). Transcending paradox: The Chinese "middle way" perspective . Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 19, 179-199.
14.
Cohen, F.G. ( 1996, August 15). Confucianism: An excerpt from a synopsis of the ethics of Confucianism. Retrieved September 18, 2002, from http://www.thespiritualsanctuary.org/Confucianism/Confucianism.html
15.
Dahlin, B., & Watkins, D. ( 2000). The role of repetition in the processes of memorising and understanding: A comparison of the views of German and Chinese secondary school students in Hong Kong. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 65-84.
16.
Don: Confucianism still relevant. (2004, November 4). The Star, p. 12.
17.
Durkin, K. ( 2007). The middle way: East Asian Master’s students’ perceptions of critical argumentation in U.K. universities. Journal of Studies in International Education, 12(1), 38-55.
18.
Echter, T., Kim, U., James Kau, C.-V., Li, H.-C., Simmons, C., & Ward, C. ( 1998). A comparative study in the levels of human values: People’s Republic of China, Singapore, Taiwan, and the United States. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 271-288.
19.
Entwistle, N., & Entwistle, D. ( 2003). Preparing for examination: The interplay of memorising and understanding, and the development of knowledge object. Higher Education Research and Development, 22(1), 19-41.
20.
Entwistle, N., & Ramsden, P. ( 1983). Understanding student learning. London : Croom Helm.
21.
Floyd, F.J., & Widaman, K.F. ( 1995). Factor analysis in the development and refinement of clinical assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment , 7, 286-299.
22.
Haggis, T. ( 2003). Constructing images of ourselves? A critical investigation into "Approaches to learning" research in higher education. British Educational Research Journal, 29(1), 89-104.
23.
Hair, J.F.J., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L., & Black, W.C. ( 1995). Multivariate data analysis (4th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall .
24.
Helmke, A., & Tuyet, V.T.A. ( 1999). Do Asian and Western students learn in different way? An empirical study on motivation, study time, and learning strategies of German and Vietnamese university students. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 19(2), 30-44.
25.
Higher Education Statistics Agency. (2007). Percentage of mature entrants to full-time first degree courses in 2005/06 who are no longer in HE in 2007/08. Retrieved December 7, 2009 , from http://www.hesa.ac.uk/dox/performanceIndicators/0607/sn2_0607.xls
26.
Hinkin, T.R. ( 1998). A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires. Organizational Research Methods , 1(1), 104-121.
27.
Hofstede, G. ( 1991). Management in a multicultural society. Malaysian Management Review, 26(1), 3-12.
28.
Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P.M. ( 1998). Fit indexes in covariances structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Method, 3, 424-453.
29.
Jiang, X. ( 2002). Zhang Dongsun: Pluralist epistemology and Chinese philosophy . In C.-Y. Cheng & N. Bunnin (Eds.), Contemporary Chinese Philosophy (pp. 57-81). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
30.
Kember, D. ( 1991). A challenge to the anecdotal stereotype of the Asian student. Studies in Higher Education, 16(2), 117-127.
31.
Kember, D., Biggs, J., & Leung, Y.P. ( 2004). Examining the multidimensionality of approaches to learning through the development of a revised version of the Learning Process Questionnaire . British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 261-279.
32.
Kember, D. ( 1996). The intention to both memorise and understand: Another approach to learning? Higher Education, 31, 341-354.
33.
Kember, D., Wong, A., & Leung, D.Y.P. ( 1999). Reconsidering the dimensions of approaches to learning . British Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, 323-343.
34.
Kingston, E., & Forland, H. ( 2004, September 20-21). Bridging the gap in expectations between international students and academic staff-"At home the teachers feed me with knowledge, but in the UK they help me pick up the spoon and learn to feed myself!"Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research Post Graduate and New Researcher Pre-Conference, University of Crete. Retrieved December 7, 2009, from http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00003751.htm
35.
Knowles, M. ( 1990). The adult learner: Neglected species. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.
36.
Leach, L., Neutze, G., & Zepke, N. ( 2001). Assessment and empowerment: Some critical questions. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 26, 293-305.
37.
Leung, Y.P.D., Ginns, P., & Kember, D. ( 2008). Examining the cultural specificity of approaches to learning in universities in Hong Kong and Sydney. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 39, 251-266.
38.
Marton, F., Dall’Alba, G., & Kun, T.L. ( 1996). Memorising and understanding: The key to the paradox . In D. Watkins & J. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese learners: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 69-83). Melbourne : Australian Council for Educational Research.
39.
Marton, F., & Saljo, R. ( 1976). On qualitative differences in learning-I: Outcome and process. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, 4-11.
40.
Marton, F., Watkins, D., & Tang, C. ( 1997). Discontinuities and continuities in the experience of learning: An interview study of high-school students in Hong Kong. Learning and Instruction, 7(1), 21-48.
41.
Merriam, S.B., & Caffarella, R.S. (1999). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
42.
Mok, I., Chik, P.M., Ko, P.Y., Kwan, T., Lo, M.L., Marton, F., et al. (2001). Solving the paradox of the Chinese teacher? In D. Watkins & J. Biggs (Eds.), Teaching the Chinese learners: Psychological and pedagogical perspectives (pp. 161-181). Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research .
43.
Mok, M.C., Kennedy, K.J., Moore, P.J., Shan, P.W.J., & Leung, S.O. ( 2008). The use of helping-seeking by Chinese secondary school students: Challenging the myth of "the Chinese learner."Evaluation and Research in Education, 21, 188-213.
44.
Niles, S. ( 1996). Cultural variation in learning strategies: A comparison of Australian and Sri Lankan university students. Journal of Psychology, 130(1), 83-94.
45.
Pallant, J. ( 2001). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS for Windows (Version 10). Sydney, Australia: Allen & Unwin.
46.
The Prime Minister’s Initiatives. (n.d.). Retrieved February 23, 2009, from http://www.british-council.org/eumd-pmi2-about.htm
47.
Purdie, N., & Hattie, J. ( 2002). Assessing students’ conceptions of learning. Australian Journal of Developmental and Educational Psychology, 2, 17-32.
48.
Ramsden, P. ( 2003). Learning to teach in higher education (2nd ed.). London: Routledge .
49.
Renshaw, P.D., & Volet, S.E. ( 1995). South-east Asian students at Australian universities: Reappraisal of their tutorial participation and approaches to study. Australia Educational Researcher, 22(2), 85-106.
50.
Richardson, J.T.E. ( 1995). Mature students in higher education: An investigation of approaches to studying and academic performance. Studies in Higher Education, 20(1), 5-14.
51.
Russell, M. ( 2008, March 20-26). The age of uncertainty. The Times Higher Education, p. 24.
52.
Shaules, J. ( 2007). Deep culture: The hidden challenges of global living . Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Multilingual Matters.
53.
Tan, P.-L. ( 2006). Approaches to learning and learning values: An investigation of adult learners in Malaysia. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.
54.
Tan, P.-L., Pillay, H., & Fiona, S. ( 2004). Adult learners in Malaysia: Some Issues to consider. In E. Mcwilliam, S. Danby, & K. Knight (Eds.), Performing educational research (pp. 303-317). Brisbane: Queensland, Post Pressed National Library of Australia.
55.
Tang, K.C.C. ( 1993). Spontaneous collaborative learning: A new dimension in student learning experience? Higher Education Research and Development, 12(2), 115-130.
56.
Tse, S.K., Marton, F., Ki, W.W., & Loh, K.Y.E. (2007). An integrative perceptual approach for teaching Chinese characters. Instructional Science , 35, 375-406.
57.
United Kingdom Council for International Student Affair. ( 2006/7). Higher education statistics . Retrieved February 24, 2009, from http://www.ukcosa.org.uk/about/statistics_he.php#table3
58.
Vijver, V.D., & Leung, K. ( 2000). Methodological issues in psychological research on culture . Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31(1), 33-51.
59.
Volet, S.E., Renshaw, P.D., & Tietzel, K. ( 1994). A short-term longitudinal investigation of cross-cultural differences in study approaches using Biggs’ SPQ questionnaire. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 64, 301-318.
60.
Watkins, D. ( 2001). Correlates of approaches to learning: A cross-cultural meta-analysis. In R. J. Sternberg & L. F. Zhang (Eds.), Perspectives on thinking, learning, and cognitive styles (pp. 165-195). London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
61.
Watkins, D., & Biggs, J. (Eds.). (1996). The Chinese learners: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research.
62.
Watkins, D., & Ismail, M. ( 1994). Brief research report: Is the Asian learner a rote learner? A Malaysian perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology , 19, 483-488.
63.
Watkins, D., & Reghi, M. ( 1991). The Asian-learner-as a rote-learner stereotype: Myth or reality? Educational Psychology, 11(1), 21-35.
64.
Zeegers, P. ( 2001). Approaches to learning in science: A longitudinal study . British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 115-132.
65.
Zeegers, P. ( 2002). A revision of the Biggs’ Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ). Higher Education Research & Development, 21(1), 73-92.
66.
Zhang, L.-F. ( 2000). University students’ learning approaches in three cultures: An investigation of Bigg’s 3P Model. Journal of Psychology, 134, 35-55.
67.
Zhang, L.-F., & Sternberg, R.J. (2000). Are learning approaches and thinking styles related? A study in two Chinese populations. Journal of Psychology, 134, 469-489.
