This study synthesized nano-sized titanium oxide (TiO2 NPs), zirconium-doped titanium oxide (Zr@TiO2), and cerium-doped titanium oxide (Ce@TiO2) NPs utilizing sol-gel method. The synthesized nanoparticles were analyzed utilizing UV-DRS, XRD, Micro-Raman spectroscopy, FTIR, FESEM-EDAX, DLS, and zeta potential examination. Moreover, these nanoparticles were assessed for their antibacterial effectiveness using the agar well diffusion technique. XRD analysis showed that all nanoparticles were crystalline, with average crystalline diameters for TiO2, Zr@TiO2, and Ce@TiO2 NPs are 15.05, 14.15, and 14.00 nm. FTIR confirmed all functional groups and Micro-Raman spectroscopy validated the bond formation in the synthesized materials. FESEM analysis revealed that pure TiO2 displayed rod and irregular shaped particles with clusters. Whereas, the both Zr@TiO2 and Ce@TiO2 samples exhibited rod, spherical and irregular shaped particles with more agglomeration than undoped TiO2 particles, with lengths of 395 nm, 539 nm, and 500 nm, and diameters of 28.20 nm, 52.62 nm, and 44.75 nm. The UV-DRS results indicated the reduction in their direct energy bandgaps from 2.91 eV for TiO2 to 2.20 eV for Zr@TiO2 and 2.55 eV for Ce@TiO2 sample. Zeta potential analysis revealed that all the synthesized nanoparticles have good stability. The synthesized Ce@TiO2 sample show exceptional zones of inhibition (17 and 15 mm) against the S. aureus and E. coli bacteria, making them a promising research material for wound treatment, antibacterial coatings on metal implants, medical devices and surfaces.
WarisADinMAliA, et al.A comprehensive review of green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles and their diverse biomedical applications. Inorg Chem Commun2021; 123: 108369.
2.
JafariSMahyadBHashemzadehH, et al.Biomedical applications of TiO2 nanostructures: recent advances. Int J Nanomedicine2020; 15: 3447–3470.
3.
AlhussainiMSAlyahyaAAIAl-GhanayemAA. TiO2 -based nanomaterials as antimicrobial agents: recent progress and trends (2020–2025). Main Gr Chem2026; 0: 1–13.
4.
ThakurNThakurNKumarA, et al.A critical review on the recent trends of photocatalytic, antibacterial, antioxidant and nanohybrid applications of anatase and rutile TiO2 nanoparticles. Sci Total Environ2024; 914: 169815.
5.
GaberAAKhattabRMSadekHEH, et al.Characterization of anatase TiO2 nanoparticle: comparative synthesis via microwave combustion and sol-gel techniques. Main Gr Chem2025; 24: 82–93.
6.
BavykinDVFriedrichJMWalshFC. Protonated titanates and TiO2 nanostructured materials: synthesis, properties, and applications. Adv Mater2006; 18: 2807–2824.
7.
BoykobilovDThakurSSamievA, et al.Electrochemical synthesis and modification of novel TiO2 nanotubes: chemistry and role of key synthesis parameters for photocatalytic applications in energy and environment. Inorg Chem Commun2024; 170: 113419.
8.
BarakatMOweisRDeviSS, et al.A comprehensive study on the molecular structure of TiO2 nanomaterials for efficient green hydrogen production. J Mol Struct2026; 1351: 144077.
9.
TanAWPingguan-MurphyBAhmadR, et al.Advances in fabrication of TiO2 nanofiber/nanowire arrays toward the cellular response in biomedical implantations: a review. J Mater Sci2013; 48: 8337–8353.
10.
YangYLaiYZhangQ, et al.A novel electrochemical strategy for improving blood compatibility of titanium-based biomaterials. Colloids Surfaces B Biointerfaces2010; 79: 309–313.
11.
WengYSongQZhouY, et al.Immobilization of selenocystamine on TiO2 surfaces for in situ catalytic generation of nitric oxide and potential application in intravascular stents. Biomaterials2011; 32: 1253–1263.
12.
KumaresanMVijai AnandKGovindarajuK, et al.Seaweed sargassum wightii mediated preparation of zirconia (ZrO2) nanoparticles and their antibacterial activity against gram positive and gram negative bacteria. Microb Pathog2018; 124: 311–315.
13.
ChauTPVeeraragavanGRNarayananM, et al.Green synthesis of zirconium nanoparticles using Punica granatum (pomegranate) peel extract and their antimicrobial and antioxidant potency. Environ Res2022; 209: 112771.
14.
LinYHShenLJChouTH, et al.Synthesis, stability, and cytotoxicity of novel cerium oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications. J Clust Sci2021; 32: 405–413.
15.
BarkerEShepherdJAsencioIO. The use of cerium compounds as antimicrobials for biomedical applications. Molecules2022; 27: 2678.
16.
McNamaraKTofailSAM. Nanoparticles in biomedical applications. Adv Phys X2017; 2: 54–88.
17.
PathakVLadPThakkarAB, et al.CeO2-ZnO nano composites: dual-functionality for enhanced photocatalysis and biomedical applications. Inorg Chem Commun2024; 159: 111738.
18.
BhosaleMGSutarRSLondheSS, et al.Sol–gel method synthesized ce-doped TiO2 visible light photocatalyst for degradation of organic pollutants. Appl Organomet Chem2022; 36: 1–15.
19.
OliveiraTCSilvaEF. Tio2 ceramics prepared using pechini synthesis and laser sintering. Process Appl Ceram2018; 12: 118–122.
20.
XieFHuangCDongG, et al.One-step hydrothermal synthesis of Zr-doped brookite TiO2 nanorods for highly efficient perovskite solar cells. Mater Res Bull2024; 173: 112677.
21.
ParidaKMNaikB. Synthesis of mesoporous TiO2 - xNx spheres by template free homogeneous co-precipitation method and their photo-catalytic activity under visible light illumination. J Colloid Interface Sci2009; 333: 269–276.
22.
ByranvandMMBeiranvandZM. A review on synthesis of nano-TiO2 via different methods A review on synthesis of nano-TiO2 via different methods. J Nanostructures2015; 3: 1–9.
23.
JumaAOja AcikIOluwabiAT, et al.Zirconium doped TiO2 thin films deposited by chemical spray pyrolysis. Appl Surf Sci2016; 387: 539–545.
24.
FangCSChenYW. Preparation of titania particles by thermal hydrolysis of TiCl4 in n-propanol solution. Mater Chem Phys2003; 78: 739–745.
25.
HonarmandMMMehrMEYarahmadiM, et al.Effects of different surfactants on morphology of TiO2 and Zr-doped TiO2 nanoparticles and their applications in MB dye photocatalytic degradation. SN Appl Sci2019; 1: 1–12.
26.
NachitWAit AhsaineHRamziZ, et al.Photocatalytic activity of anatase-brookite TiO2 nanoparticles synthesized by sol gel method at low temperature. Opt Mater (Amst)2022; 129: 112256.
27.
AflakiMDavarF. Synthesis, luminescence and photocatalyst properties of zirconia nanosheets by modified pechini method. J Mol Liq2016; 221: 1071–1079.
28.
RaoKSEl-HamiKKodakiT, et al.A novel method for synthesis of silica nanoparticles. J Colloid Interface Sci2005; 289: 125–131.
29.
LiZZhuYWangJ, et al.Size-controlled synthesis of dispersed equiaxed amorphous TiO2 nanoparticles. Ceram Int2015; 41: 9057–9062.
30.
CatauroMTranquilloEDal PoggettoG, et al.Influence of the heat treatment on the particles size and on the crystalline phase of TiO2 synthesized by the sol-gel method. Materials (Basel); 2018; 11: 2364.
31.
BahadurJAgrawalSPanwarV, et al.Antibacterial properties of silver doped TiO2 nanoparticles synthesized via sol-gel technique. Macromol Res2016; 24: 488–493.
32.
YadavHMOtariSVKoliVB, et al.Preparation and characterization of copper-doped anatase TiO2 nanoparticles with visible light photocatalytic antibacterial activity. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem2014; 280: 32–38.
33.
HosseiniMAbadSNKIlkhechiNN, et al.The role of sn-fe co-doping on the atomic structure, phase transformation and antibacterial activity of TiO2 nanoparticles. Mater Res Express2019; 6: 1050c1.
34.
Najibi IlkhechiNAkbarpourMRYavariR, et al.Sn4+ and La3+ co doped TiO2 nanoparticles and their optical, photocatalytic and antibacterial properties under visible light. J Mater Sci Mater Electron2017; 28: 16658–16664.
35.
WangYWangXLiL, et al.An experimental and theoretical study on the photocatalytic antibacterial activity of boron-doped TiO2 nanoparticles. Ceram Int2022; 48: 604–614.
36.
SanitnonPChiarakornSChawengkijwanichC, et al.Synergistic effects of zirconium and silver co-dopants in TiO2 nanoparticles for photocatalytic degradation of an organic dye and antibacterial activity. J Aust Ceram Soc2020; 56: 579–590.
37.
ToubalBElkourdKBouabR, et al.The impact of copper–cerium (cu–ce) addition on anatase-TiO2 nanostructured films for its inactivation of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol2022; 103: 549–564.
38.
JasminJAnilkumarPDeepakS. Synthesis, analysis and characterization of surfactant-assisted TiO2 nanoparticles for ammonia gas sensor applications. Ceram Int2024; 50: 52262–52269.
39.
BharathiRNSankarS. Structural, optical and magnetic properties of pr doped CeO2 nanoparticles synthesized by citrate–nitrate auto combustion method. J Mater Sci Mater Electron2018; 29: 6679–6691.
40.
SaleemSJameelM.HAlothmanA.A, et al. A band gap engineering for the modification in electrical properties of Fe3O4 by Cu2+ doping for electronic and optoelectronic devices applications. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol2024; 109: 471–482.
41.
RamyaRMuthulakshmiGSudhaharS, et al.Green synthesis and characterization studies of TiO2 nanoparticles and its potential biological performance. Nano-Structures and Nano-Objects2024; 39: 101322.
42.
SurendhiranSBaluKSKarthikA, et al.Biogenic synthesis of CeO2 nanoparticles via moringa oleifera seed extract: photocatalytic and biological activity for textile dye degradation. J Indian Chem Soc2024; 101: 101302.
43.
MaheswariPPonnusamySHarishS, et al.Hydrothermal synthesis of pure and bio modified TiO2: characterization, evaluation of antibacterial activity against gram positive and gram negative bacteria and anticancer activity against KB oral cancer cell line. Arab J Chem2020; 13: 3484–3497.
44.
RaguramTRajniKS. Synthesis and characterisation of cu - doped TiO2 nanoparticles for DSSC and photocatalytic applications. Int J Hydrogen Energy2022; 47: 4674–4689.
45.
HuangHLiXWangJ, et al.Anionic group self-doping as a promising strategy: band-gap engineering and multi-functional applications of high-performance CO32−-doped Bi2O2CO3. ACS Catal2015; 5: 4094–4103.
46.
HuangHTuSZengC, et al.Macroscopic polarization enhancement promoting photo- and piezoelectric-induced charge separation and molecular oxygen activation. Angew Chem, Int Ed2017; 56: 11860–11864.
47.
KubelkaP. Ein beitrag zur optik der farbanstriche. Z Tech Phys1931; 12: 593–601.
48.
SurendraBSGaganRSoundaryaGN, et al.Thermal barrier and photocatalytic properties of La2Zr2O7 NPs synthesized by a neem extract assisted combustion method. Appl Surf Sci Adv2020; 1: 100017.
49.
KariyannaGSiddegowdaSBShivramAK, et al.Helianthus-annuus assisted synthesis of ZrO2 nanoparticles: enhanced electrochemical, photoluminescent, and optical properties. ChemPhysMater2023; 2: 148–154.
50.
AsrafuzzamanFNUAminKFGafurMA, et al.Mangifera indica mediated biogenic synthesis of undoped and doped TiO2 nanoparticles and evaluation of their structural, morphological, and photocatalytic properties. Results Mater2023; 17: 100384.
51.
VijayalakshmiKSivarajD. Synergistic antibacterial activity of barium doped TiO2 nanoclusters synthesized by microwave processing. RSC Adv2016; 6: 9663–9671.
52.
IkramMUmarERazaA, et al.Dye degradation performance, bactericidal behavior and molecular docking analysis of cu-doped TiO2 nanoparticles. RSC Adv2020; 10: 24215–24233.
53.
BhullarSGoyalNGuptaS. Rapid green-synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles for therapeutic applications. RSC Adv2021; 11: 30343–30352.
54.
SinghDKhanFJainVK, et al.Efficient photodegradation of methylene blue dye using cerium-doped titanium dioxide (ce@TiO2) photocatalyst under visible light irradiation. J Indian Chem Soc2024; 101: 101356.
55.
Castillo-HernándezDPérez-GonzálezMTomásSA, et al.Synthesis of sol-gel TiO2 nanoparticles and assessment of their antifungal activity for the eventual conservation of historical documents. Applied Materials Today2023; 35: 101999.
56.
TianFZhangYZhangJ, et al.Raman Spectroscopy: a new approach to measure the percentage of anatase TiO2 exposed (001) facets. J Phys Chem C2012; 116: 7515–7519.
57.
MuduliSSekhar BeheraSKumar MohapatraR, et al.Efficient adsorption and antimicrobial application of bio-synthesized porous CeO2 nanoparticles. Mater Sci Eng B2023; 290: 116275.
58.
RaguramTRajniKS. Sciencedirect synthesis and characterisation of cu - doped TiO2 nanoparticles for DSSC and photocatalytic applications. Int J Hydrogen Energy2021; 47: 4674–4689.
59.
KordeSAThombrePBDipakeSS, et al.Neem gum (azadirachta indicia) facilitated green synthesis of TiO2 and ZrO2 nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents. Inorg Chem Commun2023; 153: 110777.
60.
KordeSAThombrePBSangshettiJN, et al.Green synthesis of binary nanostructured TiO2-ZrO2 composites using moringa oleifera gum: photocatalytic and antimicrobial applications. J Mol Struct2025; 1323: 140725.
61.
ArabacAÖksüzömerMF. Preparation and characterization of 10mol% gd doped CeO2 (GDC) electrolyte for SOFC applications. Ceram Int2012; 38: 6509–6515.
62.
MersianHAlizadehMHadiN. Synthesis of zirconium doped copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles by the pechini route and investigation of their structural and antibacterial properties. Ceram Int2018; 44: 20399–20408.
63.
KarthaBThanikachalamKVijayakumarN, et al.Synthesis and characterization of ce-doped TiO2 nanoparticles and their enhanced anticancer activity in Y79 retinoblastoma cancer cells. Green Process Synth2022; 11: 143–149.
64.
ZhangXSaravanakumarKSathiyaseelanA, et al.Synthesis, characterization, and comparative analysis of antibiotics (ampicillin and erythromycin) loaded ZrO2 nanoparticles for enhanced antibacterial activity. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol2023; 82: 104293.
65.
OnugwuALNwagwuCSOnugwuOS, et al.Nanotechnology based drug delivery systems for the treatment of anterior segment eye diseases. J Control Release2023; 354: 465–488.
66.
OwVLinQWongJHM, et al.Understanding the interplay between pH and charges for theranostic nanomaterials. Nanoscale2025; 17: 6960–6980.
67.
AyodhyaDAmbalaABalrajG, et al.Green synthesis of CeO2 NPs using Manilkara zapota fruit peel extract for photocatalytic treatment of pollutants, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic activities. Results Chem2022; 4: 100441.
68.
PreethaSAnilkumarPNisha JenifarA. Comparative investigation of structural properties and biological applications of chemical and biogenic synthesis of zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) nanoparticles using Passiflora edulis. J Photochem Photobiol B Biol2025; 263: 113089.
69.
TaddessePParajuliDMuraliN. Study of fe-doped and glucose-capped CeO2 nanoparticles synthesized by co-precipitation method. Chem Phys2022; 561: 111617.
70.
NagarajKRadhaSDeepaCG, et al.Photocatalytic advancements and applications of titanium dioxide (TiO₂): progress in biomedical, environmental, and energy sustainability. Next Res2025; 2: 100180.
71.
UthiravelVNarayanamurthiKRajaV, et al.Green synthesis and characterization of TiO2 and ag-doped TiO2 nanoparticles for photocatalytic and antimicrobial applications. Inorg Chem Commun2024; 170: 113327.
