Despite increased structural opportunities through Title IX, adolescent females in the US continue to participate in physical activity less than males. This persistent pattern suggests gender stereotypes might subtly groom girls’ and boys’ choices about health behaviors. Although communication can shape gender stereotypes, the majority of physical activity studies employ social influence frameworks (i.e. social learning theory) that ignore this important dimension of influence. Because the family is a primary socializing agent where gender roles are learned, the current qualitative interview study of high school basketball players illustrates: (1) how communication within the family context prompts learning about parental role models in sport; (2) how adolescents talk about maternal and paternal sports participation. This research suggests that communication is an important modifiable social process for physical activity interventions that include a family influence component.
Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles (1990) Gender Stereotyping in Televised Sports. Los Angeles, CA: Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles .
3.
Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles (1994) Gender Stereotyping in Televised Sports: A Follow-up to the 1989 Study. Los Angeles, CA: Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles .
4.
Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles (2000) Gender in Televised Sports: 1989, 1993 and 1999. Los Angeles, CA: Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles .
5.
Areen, J. (1992) ‘Legal Constraints on Social Research with Children’, in J.E. Sieber (ed.) Social Research on Children and Adolescents, pp. 7–30. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
6.
Baca-Zinn, M. (1975) ‘ Political Familism: Toward Sex Role Equality in Chicano Families’ , International Journal of Chicano Studies Research6: 13–16 .
7.
Baca-Zinn, M. (1982) ‘Chicano Men and Masculinity’ , Journal of Ethnic Studies10(2): 29–44 .
8.
Baca-Zinn, M. and Dill, B.T. (1996) ‘Theorizing Difference from Multiracial Feminism’ , Feminist Studies22: 321–331 .
9.
Bandura, A. (1977) Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York: W.H. Freeman & Co.
10.
Bandura, A. and Walters, R.H. (1963) Social Learning and Personality Development. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston .
Bogdan, R. and Taylor, S.J. (1975) Introduction to Qualitative Methods: A PhenomenologicalApproach to the Social Sciences. New York: Wiley .
13.
Cahill, S.E. (1987) ‘Becoming Boys and Girls’, unpublished PhD dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara.
14.
Cohen, G.L. (1993) Women in Sport: Issues and Controversies. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
15.
Collins, P.H. (1990) Black Feminist Thought. New York: Routledge .
16.
Connell, R.W. , Kessler, S. , Ashenden, D.J. and Dowsett, G.W. (1982) Making the Difference: Schools, Families and Social Division. Sydney: George Allen & Unwin .
17.
Deem, R. (1982) ‘Women, Leisure, and Inequality’ , Leisure Studies1: 29–46 .
18.
Feder-Kane, A.M. (2000) ‘A Radiant Smile from a Lovely Lady: Over Determined Femininity in Ladies Figure Skating’, in M.G. McDonald (ed.) Reading Sport: Critical Essays on Power and Representation. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press .
19.
Fine, G.A. (1987) With the Boys: Little League Baseball and Preadolescent Culture. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press .
20.
Fine, G.A. and Sandstrom, K.L. (1988) Knowing Children: Participant Observation with Minors. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
21.
Foley, D.E. (1990) ‘ The Great American Football Ritual: Reproducing Race, Class, and Gender Inequality’ , Sociology of Sport7: 111–135 .
22.
Grant, L. (1993) ‘Gender Roles and Status in School Children’s Peer Interactions’ , Western Sociological Review18(1): 58–76 .
23.
Greendorfer, S.L. (1977) ‘The Role of Socializing Agents in Female Sport Involvement’ , Research Quarterly48(2): 304–310 .
24.
Greendorfer, S.L. (1987) ‘Gender Bias, Female Socialization into Sport’ , Psychology of Women’s Quarterly11: 326–440 .
25.
Greendorfer, S.L. (1991) ‘Gender Role Stereotypes and Early Childhood Socialization’, in G.L. Cohen (ed.) Women in Sport: Issues and Controversies. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
26.
Greendorfer, S.L. and Ewing, M.E. (1981) ‘Race and Gender Differences in Children’s Socialization into Sport’ , Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport52(3): 301–310 .
27.
Greendorfer, S.L. and Lewko, J.H. (1978) ‘Role of Family Members in Sport Socialization of Children’ , Research Quarterly49(2): 146–152 .
28.
Grisso, T. (1992) ‘Minors’ Assent to Behavioral Research without Parental Consent’, in J.E. Sieber (ed.) Social Research on Children and Adolescents: Ethical Issues, pp. 65–97. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
29.
Higginson, D.C. (1985) ‘The Influence of Socializing Agents in the female Sport-Participation Process’ , Adolescence20: 73–82 .
30.
Hochschild, A. (1989) The Second Shift. New York: Penguin Books .
31.
hooks, b. (1989) Talking Back: Thinking Feminist, Thinking Black. Boston, MA: South End Press .
32.
Kenyon, G.S. and McPherson, B.D. (1973) ‘Becoming Involved in Physical Activity and Sport: A Process of Socialization’, in G.L. Rarick (ed.) Physical Activity: Human Growth and Development. New York: Academic Press .
33.
Lamb, M. (1976) The Role of the Father in Child Development. New York: Wiley .
34.
Langlois, J.H. and Downs, A.C. (1980) ‘Mothers, Fathers, and Peers as Socialization Agents of Sex-Typed Play Behaviors in Young Children’ , Child Development51: 1217–1247 .
35.
Lewko, H.H. and Ewing, M.E. (1980) ‘Sex Differences and Parental Influence in Sport Involvement of Children’ , Journal of Sport Psychology2: 63–68 .
36.
Lofland, J. and Lofland, L. (1984) Analyzing Social Settings. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth .
37.
Maccoby, E.E. (1999) The Two Sexes: Growing up Apart, Coming Together. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press .
38.
Macklin, R. (1992) ‘Autonomy, Beneficence, and Child Development’, in J.E. Sieber (ed.) Social Research on Children and Adolescents: Ethical Issues, pp. 34–46. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
39.
Messner, M.A. and Sabo, D.F. (1990) Sport, Men and the Gender Order. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetic Books .
40.
Messner, M.A. , Dunbar, M.D. and Hunt, D. (2000) ‘The Televised Sports Manhood Formula’ , Journal of Sport and Social Issues24(4): 380–394 .
41.
National Federation of State High Schools Association (1997–8) The National Federation of State High Schools Association Handbook. Kansas City, MO: NFSHSA .
42.
Patton, M.Q. (1998) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
43.
Reinharz, S. (1992) Feminist Methods in Social Research. New York: Oxford University Press .
44.
Reith, K.M. (1999) Playing Fair: A Women’s Sports Foundation Guide to Title IX in High School and College Sports. New York: Women’s Sports Foundation .
45.
Sallis, J.F. , Simons-Morton, B.G. , Stone, E.J. , Corbin, C.B. , Epstein, L.H. , Faucette, N. , Iannotti, R.J. , Killen, J.D. , Klesges, R.C. , Petray, C.K. , Rowland, T.W. and Taylor, W.C. (1992) ‘Determinants of Physical Activity and Interventions in Youth’ , Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise24(6): 248–257 .
46.
Sallis, J.F. , Zakarian, J.M. , Hovell, M.F. and Hofstetter, C.R. (1996) ‘Ethnic, Socioeconomic, and Sex Differences in Physical Activity among Adolescents’ , Journal of Clinical Epidemiology49(2): 125–134 .
47.
Sallis, J.F. , Prochaska, Judith J. , and Taylor, Wendell C. (2000) ‘A Review of Correlates of Physical Activity of Children and Adolescents’ , Epidemiology32(5): 963–975 .
48.
Shakib, S. (2003). ‘Female Basketball Participation: Negotiating the Conflation of Peer Status and Gender Status from Childhood through Puberty’ , American Behavioral Scientist46(10): 1405–1422 .
49.
Shakib, S. and Dunbar, M.D. (2002) ‘The Social Construction of Female and Male High School Basketball Participation: Reproducing the Gender Order through a Two-Tiered Sporting Institution’ , Sociological Perspectives45(4): 353–378 .
50.
Shakib, S. , Scalir, K. and Shakib, K.A. (2003) Title IX: Facts, Figures, Myths and Reality. Prepared for the Women for Sociologist in Society. Available: www.newmedia.colorado.edu/socwomen/index.html%23myturn.
51.
Spreitzer, E.E. and Snyder, D. (1976) ‘Correlates of Sports Participation among Adolescent Girls’ , Research Quarterly47: 804–809 .
52.
Sussman, S. , Dent, C. , Burton, D. , Stacy, A.W. and Flay, B. (1995) Developing School-Based Tobacco Use Prevention and Cessation Programs. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
53.
Synder, E. and Spreitzer, E. (1973) ‘Family Influence and Involvement in Sports’ , Research Quarterly44(3): 249–255 .
54.
Tashakkori, A. and Teddlie, C. (1998) Mixed Methodology: Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
55.
Taylor, W.C. , Yancey, A.K. , Leslie, J. , Murray, N.G. , Cummings, S.S. , Sharkey, S.A. , Wert, C. , James, J. , Miles, O. and McCarthy, W.J. (1999) ‘Physical Activity among African American and Latino Middle School Girls: Consistent Beliefs, Expectations, and Experiences across Two Sites’ , Women and Health30: 67–81 .
56.
Trost, S.G. , Pate, R.R. , Saunders, R. , Ward, D.S. , Dowda, M. and Felton, G. (1997) ‘A Prospective Study of the Determinants of Physical Activity in Rural Fifth-Grade Children’ , Preventive Medicine26: 257–263 .
57.
Tymchuk, A.J. (1992) ‘Assent Process’, in J.E. Sieber (ed.) Social Research on Children and Adolescents: Ethical Issues, pp. 128–142. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
58.
United States Department of Health and Human Services (1998) Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion .
59.
Watson, G. (1975) ‘Sex Role Socialization and the Competitive Process in Athletics’ , Australian Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation70: 10–21 .
60.
Weiss, M.R. and Knopper, A. (1982) ‘The Influence of Socializing Agents on Female Collegiate Volleyball Players’ , Journal of Sport Psychology4: 267–279 .
