This article traces some administrative and media constructions of Australian surfing subculture in the early 1970s. Foucault's concept of `governmentality', which is concerned with techniques and technologies of discipline, is deployed to interpret the administrative categorization process that was used to distinguish legitimate from illegitimate unemployment benefit claims. Particular attention is paid to how some of the discourses surrounding unemployment benefit compared the unemployed surfing subject unfavorably with the idealized working citizen. Not only was `the surfie element' an object of discipline but, more importantly, `youths' as a social category were made to know themselves as potentially irresponsible at a time of growing unemployment.
Advertiser (1975) `Growers Upset by Work-Shy' (11 April).
7.
Age (1973a) `Hairy Jobless Get Dole' (19 Jan.).
8.
Age (1973b) `Jobless Deserve Dignity' (13 April).
9.
Age (1974a) `Cameron Declares War on Those Who Won't Work: “Get Rid of the Slacker on the Dole” ' (12 March).
10.
Age (1974b) `Slackers and the Dole' (13 March).
11.
Age (1974c) `Make Dole Harder to Get: Hamer' (20 March).
12.
Age (1974d) `We Regard the Dole as a Form of Informal Grant which Allows us to Experiment' (6 April).
13.
Age (1975a) `Blitz on Bludgers But Dole Pay Stays' (17 Feb.).
14.
Age (1975b) `Labor Created Bludgers: Chipp' (14 May).
15.
Andrews, D. (1993) `Desperately Seeking Michel: Foucault's Genealogy, the Body and Critical Sport Sociology', Sociology of Sport Journal10: 148-167.
16.
Australia, Department of Labour (1974a) Unemployment Benefit Application of the Work Test: Report of the Working Party.Canberra: Department of Labour (March, unpublished).
17.
Australia, Department of Labour (1974b) Letter from Clyde Cameron to Branch Secretary, Australian Labor Party, Narrabri Branch, 30 May.
18.
Australia, Department of Labour and National Service (1972) `Re Out of District Works Testing', Memorandum from A.P. Camilleri (District Officer) to the Assistant Director of Employment Sydney. Department of Employment, Education and Training, File 11501: `Unemployment and Sickness Benefits — Application of the Work Test', 18 April.
19.
Australia, Department of Social Security (1972) `[Unemployment Benefits — the Work Test]', Letter from Bill Hayden (Minister for Social Security) to Clyde Cameron (Minister for Labour), 21 Dec. Australian Archives, A887/1 D227 PT. 3.
20.
Australia, Department of Social Security (1973a) Letter from Bill Hayden (Minister for Social Security) to Dr L. Wienholt (Director-General of Social Security), 15 Jan. Australian Archives, A887/1 D227 PT. 3.
21.
Australia, Department of Social Security (1973b) `Unemployment Benefit — Work Test', Minute from Louise J. Wienholt (Director-General of Social Security) to Bill Hayden (Minister for Social Security), 1 March. Australian Archives, A887/1 D227 PT. 3.
22.
Australia, Department of Social Security (1973c) `Minute paper: unemployment benefit — work test.' Communication from L.J. Daniels to Bill Hayden, including Hayden's handwritten response, 11 May. Australian Archives, A887/1 D227 PT. 3.
23.
Australian (1972) `Action on Job Dodgers Urged' (18 Oct.).
24.
Australian (1975a) `Unions Hit Back at Whitlam's “Bashing” ' (25 Feb.).
25.
Australian (1975b) `Jobless Elite Claimed' (28 April).
26.
Australian Financial Review (1973) `Campus Course: How to Beat Relief Laws: Dole Jet-Setters Cluster to the Gold Coast' (19 July).
27.
Australian Financial Review (1974a) `Manpower Policies of Al and Clyde' (8 Jan.).
28.
Australian Financial Review (1974b) `Employers Back Cameron in Attack on “Slackers” ' (13 March).
29.
Australian Financial Review (1974c) `Retraining' (13 March).
30.
Burchell, D. (1995) `The Attributes of Citizens: Virtue Manners and the Activity of Citizenship', Economy and Society24: 540-558.
31.
Burchell, G. (1993) `Liberal Government and Techniques of the Self', Economy and Society22: 267-282.
32.
Canberra Times (1972a) `People who Avoid Jobs Cause Confusion' (21 Oct.).
33.
Canberra Times (1972b) `Surfers who have No Job Told to Move on' (7 Nov.).
34.
Canberra Times (1973) `Benefits Guide Criticized' (2 May).
35.
Canberra Times (1974a) `Cameron Says Get Rid of Slackers' (12 March).
36.
Canberra Times (1974b) `Bludgers and Benefits' (13 March).
37.
Canberra Times (1974c) `Cameron's Threat on Dole Benefits' (2 Nov.).
38.
Canberra Times (1975a) `Test Too Easy' (19 Feb.).
39.
Canberra Times (1975b) `Tax Supports Idle' (10 March).
40.
Connell, R.W. (1990) `An Iron Man: The Body and Some Contradictions of Hegemonic Masculinity', in M. Messner and D. Sabo (eds) Sport, Men and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives.Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
41.
Courier-Mail (1973a) `Hippies Live on the Dole' (17 July).
42.
Courier-Mail (1973b) `Being Unemployed can be Hard Work' (16 Dec.).
43.
Cross, G. (1986) `The Political Economy of Leisure in Retrospect: Britain, France and the Origins of the Eight-Hour Day', Leisure Studies5: 69-70.
44.
Crosset, T. and Beal, B. (1997) `The Use of “Subculture” and “Subworld” in Ethnographic Works on Sport: A Discussion of Definitional Distinctions', Sociology of Sport Journal14: 73-85.
45.
Cruikshank, B. (1993) `Revolutions within: Self-Government and Self-Esteem', Economy and Society22(3): 327-344.
46.
Daily Mirror (1974) `Cheats Exposed: Millions Paid out in Huge Dole Fraud' (9 Jan.).
47.
Daily Telegraph (1972) `Warning on “Drop-outs” ' (18 Oct.).
48.
Daily Telegraph (1974a) `Cameron Threat to Unemployed: No Dole Unless Switch in Jobs' (8 Jan.).
49.
Daily Telegraph (1974b) `No Benefits “Lurks” for Jobless — Department Claim' (10 Jan.).
50.
Daily Telegraph (1974c) `Snedden Joins ALP Attack on Bludgers' (14 March).
51.
Daily Telegraph (1974d) `Taming the Dole' (16 March).
Daily Telegraph (1975) Editorial, `Dole is Too Easy' (19 May).
54.
Dean, M. (1991) The Constitution of Poverty: Toward a Genealogy of Liberal Governance.London: Routledge.
55.
Dean, M. (1995) `Governing the Self in an Active Society', Economy and Society24(4): 559-583.
56.
Foucault, M. (1991) `Governmentality' (tr. Pasquale Pasquino), in. G. Burchell, C. Gordon and P. Miller (eds) The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality.London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
57.
Grieves, J. (1989) `Acquiring a Leisure Identity: Juvenile Jazz Bands and the Moral Universe of “Healthy” Leisure Time', Leisure Studies8: 1-9.
58.
Gruneau, R. (1999) Class, Sports and Social Development (2nd edn). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
59.
Gruneau, R. and Whitson, D. (1993) Hockey Night in Canada: Sport, Identities and Cultural Politics.Toronto: Garamond Press.
60.
Hargreaves, J. (1986) Sport, Power and Culture: A Social and Historical Analysis of Popular Sports in Britain.London: Polity Press.
61.
Hargreaves, J. (1992) `Sport and Socialism in Britain', Sociology of Sport Journal9: 131-153.
62.
Hargreaves, J. and Tomlinson, A. (1992) `Getting There: Cultural Theory and the Sociological Analysis of Sport in Britain', Sociology of Sport Journal9: 207-219.
63.
Harvey, J. and Cantelon, H. (1988) Not Just a Game: Essays in Canadian Sport Sociology.Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.
64.
Harvey, J. and Sparks, R. (1991) `The Politics of the Body in the Context of Modernity', Quest43: 164-189.
65.
Hayden, Bill (1975a) Address to the Australian Council of Social Services Conference on Guaranteed Minimum Income, Melbourne.
66.
Hayden, Bill (1975b) Press statement by the Minister for Social Security, Mr Bill Hayden, on Bureau of Statistics survey of people claiming unemployment benefits, 19 May.
67.
Heely, J. (1986) `Leisure and Moral Reform', Leisure Studies5: 57-67.
68.
Heikkala, J. (1993) `Discipline and Excel: Techniques of the Self and Body and the Logic of Competing', Sociology of Sport Journal10: 397-412.
Hindess, B. (1997) `Politics and Governmentality', Economy and Society26(2): 257-272.
80.
Humphreys, Duncan (1997) `Shreadheads Go Mainstream? Snowboarding and Alternative Youth', International Review for the Sociology of Sport32: 147-160.
81.
Ingham, A. and Beamish, R. (1997) `Didn't Cyclops Lose his Vision? An Exercise in Sociological Optometry', Sociology of Sport Journal14: 160-186.
82.
Ingham, A. and Loy, J. (eds) (1993) Sport in Social Development: Traditions, Transitions and Transformations.Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
83.
Law, A. (1993) `Idlers, Loafers and Layabouts: An Historical Sociological Study of Discipline and Unemployment in Australia', PhD dissertation, University of Alberta.
84.
Mercury (1974a) `Disaster: Plan to Stop “Easy Living”: End of Dole' (19 Feb.).
Morgan, W.J. (1994) `Hegemony Theory, Social Domination, and Sport: The MacAloon and Hargreaves-Tomlinson Debate Revisited', Sociology of Sport Journal11: 309-329.
87.
Murphy, D. (1980) Hayden: A Political Biography.Sydney: Angus & Robertson.
88.
National Times (1972) `It will be Harder to Live in the Sun off the Dole' (13-18 Nov.).
89.
National Times (1974) `They can't Find the Lion Tamer, But Hard-Core Unemployed Grow' (25 March).
90.
O'Malley, P. , Weir, L. and Shearing, C. (1997) `Governmentality, Criticism, Politics', Economy and Society26: 501-517.
91.
Pearson, K. (1979) Surfing Subcultures of Australia and New Zealand.Brisbane: University of Queensland Press.
92.
Piven, F. and Cloward, R. (1971) Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare.New York: Pantheon Books.
93.
P.M. (1975) `Allegations of Unsympathetic Treatment to Women at Commonwealth Employment Service Offices in Pitt and Bathurst Streets, Sydney' [Rita Hamlin interviewing unemployed woman], 6 March, ABC.
94.
Rail, G. and Harvey, J. (1995) `Body at Work: Michel Foucault and the Sociology of Sport', Sociology of Sport Journal12: 141-146.
95.
Rojek, C. (1992) ` “The Eye of Power”: Moral Regulation and the Professionalization of Leisure Management from the 1930s to the 1950s', Society and Leisure15(1): 355-373.
96.
Rojek, C. (1993) `De-differentitation and Leisure', Society and Leisure16(1): 15-29.
97.
Rojek, C. (1999) `Deviant Leisure: The Dark Side of Free-time Activity', in E. Jackson and I. Burton (eds) Leisure Studies: Prospects for the Twenty First Century.State College, PA: Venture Publishing.
98.
Rose, N. (1993) `Government, Authority and Expertise in Advanced Liberalism', Economy and Society22: 283-300.
99.
Stranger M. (1999) `The Aesthetics of Risk: A Study of Surfing', International Review for the Sociology of Sport34: 265-276.
100.
Sun (1974a) `Idle on the Dole' (17 March).
101.
Sun (1974b) `Crackdown on Job Dodgers' (17 March).
102.
Sunday Mail (1975) `Action on “Bludgers” ' (16 Feb.).
103.
Sun-Pictorial (1973) `New Deal for the Jobless' (5 Jan.).
104.
Sun-Pictorial (1974a) `Where are the Jobless?' (2 Feb.).
105.
Sun-Pictorial (1974b) `Jobless Loafing in Sun' (20 Feb.).
106.
Sun-Pictorial (1974c) `Slackers Told: Work or Lose Cash' (12 March).
107.
Sun-Pictorial (1975a) `Chipp: Race of Bludgers' (14 May).
