Abstract
This study investigates the dynamic relationship between work-life balance (WLB), workplace policies (WPP), career management (CM), and job satisfaction (JS) among working women in both the government and private organizations. While prior research has examined WLB and JS separately, few have integrated the mediating influence of CM within the Indian context. This study addresses that gap by using structural equation modeling (SEM) on data from 171 working women across. The findings revealed that WPP have a significant influence on both CM and JS. CM also positively impacts JS, confirming its mediating role in the relationship between institutional support and employee satisfaction. While WLB showed no direct effect on JS, it exhibited a fully mediated effect through CM, emphasizing the need for organizations to integrate WLB strategies with structured career development initiatives. These insights contribute to the understanding of gendered workplace experiences and highlight the importance of institutional support in promoting sustainable careers and the well-being of working women.
Introduction
In recent decades, the increasing participation of women in the workforce has transformed organizational landscapes across the globe. While intersectional factors such as caste, religion, socioeconomic background, and rural–urban identity significantly shape the workplace experiences of women in India, their influence on access to workplace support, career opportunities, and family expectations is widely recognized in existing research. As women strive to achieve parity in professional spaces, they bear the weight of traditional caregiving roles, creating tension between personal responsibilities and professional aspirations. This duality focuses on work-life balance (WLB), particularly for women navigating careers in dynamic, demanding environments (Aprilinda et al., 2020). WLB is crucial to employee well-being, organizational commitment, and overall life satisfaction (Abendroth & den Dulk, 2011; Lester, 2015).
Yet, WLB alone does not capture the full spectrum of women’s workplace experiences. Equally important is career development, which reflects not only an individual’s professional growth but also their perceived trajectory and support within an organization. Research suggests that while women increasingly pursue advanced qualifications and demonstrate ambition, they often encounter structural and cultural obstacles that hinder upward mobility (Aruldoss et al., 2022; O’Neil & Bilimoria, 2005). In the post-pandemic context, career development has further intersected with flexible work arrangements, reshaping how women define and pursue professional goals (Balven et al., 2018).
Moreover, job satisfaction (JS) remains a key outcome variable linked to WLB and career development. Studies have shown that women’s satisfaction at work is intricately tied to supportive workplace policies (WPP), social support, and equitable growth opportunities (Gash, 2008; Shanafelt et al., 2012). Lester (2015) found that institutional support structures, including mentorship and flexibility, significantly influence women’s satisfaction levels and intent to remain in their roles. Similarly, research on midlife women emphasizes the buffering effect of emotional and instrumental support on stress and JS (Marcinkus et al., 2007).
Despite the growing interest in these domains, limited research has explored the interconnected nature of WLB, career development, and JS among working women within a unified framework. Existing studies often focus on isolated relationships or treat gender as a control variable, overlooking the gendered nuances of career trajectories and satisfaction outcomes. This study aims to fill this gap by investigating how WPPs and personal balance influence women’s career management (CM) and, in turn, their satisfaction with work. By examining these interrelationships, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of the institutional and personal mechanisms that shape the career outcomes of working women.
Objective
To identify the demographic profile of working women in relation to their WLB, career development, and JS.
To examine the impact of WLB on CM among working women.
To assess the influence of WPP on CM.
To evaluate the role of CM in determining JS among working women.
To investigate the direct relationship between WPP and JS.
Review of Literature
WLB Among Working Women
WLB has been extensively studied as a determinant of personal well-being and professional productivity, particularly among working women. The concept involves the ability to manage both work and personal responsibilities effectively, a challenge often intensified for women due to persistent gender norms around caregiving and domestic roles (Abendroth & Den Dulk, 2011). Women experience heightened demands due to aging parents and dependent children, making the role of emotional and instrumental support more pronounced (Karen Albertsen et al., 2008). Aprilinda et al. (2020) further suggested that unresolved WLB issues contribute to attrition and underperformance, particularly among women navigating dual roles.
Despite growing attention, WLB alone does not guarantee long-term professional contentment. Several scholars argue that WLB must be integrated with supportive career development practices to create sustainable career outcomes (O’Neil & Bilimoria, 2005; Shanafelt et al., 2012). This linkage forms the foundation for exploring more complex interrelations between institutional support, career aspirations, and JS among women professionals (Agha et al., 2017).
Career Development and Gendered Pathways
Women’s career development is frequently described as nonlinear, shaped by shifting personal priorities and workplace structures. O’Neil and Bilimoria (2005) introduced a three-phase framework—Idealism, Endurance, and Reinvention—illustrating how both internal motivations and external barriers influence women’s career progression. These findings highlight the dynamic and cyclical nature of women’s careers, which are often interrupted or redirected by life events, caregiving responsibilities, or societal expectations.
Supportive leadership and family-friendly supervisory practices can reduce work-family conflict (WFC) and promote women’s career sustainability, emphasizing the need for career-friendly workplaces (Agbanyo & Jiang, 2025). Job security, career motivation, and trust in growth opportunities affect important life decisions, including fertility planning. It appears that women who anticipate more defined career paths are better at balancing personal and professional goals (Yoshida et al., 2025). Gender-sensitive career rules and frameworks are also necessary, as managerial systems’ gender biases hinder women’s career advancement (Tabassum & Nayak, 2021).
Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic has redefined workplace structures, accelerating remote work and introducing new avenues for women to balance their personal and professional responsibilities (Tiwari et al., 2024). According to the study on women’s career development during the pandemic, the shift to remote work created both opportunities and challenges for career progression, underscoring the importance of boundary-setting and institutional trust (Hudson Breen & Leung, 2020). In addition, Balven et al. (2018) emphasized that without strategic mentoring, inclusion in leadership pipelines, and structured growth opportunities, women often plateau in mid-career stages despite demonstrating competence and ambition.
JS and Its Determinants
JS has long been recognized as a key organizational outcome influenced by multiple factors, including career support, personal fulfillment, and institutional culture (Efeoglu & Ozcan, 2013). Fox and Quinn (2015) found that faculty members, particularly women, experience higher JS in environments where there is access to mentoring, recognition, and work flexibility. Similarly, Aruldoss et al. (2021) argue that the quality of work-life (QWL) significantly affects JS and organizational commitment, particularly when institutions support skill development, autonomy, and work-life initiatives.
Interestingly, not all studies rank WLB as the primary driver of retention or satisfaction. A study by Aruldoss et al. (2021) revealed that while WLB is essential, career development and employee engagement are stronger predictors of retention in high-performance sectors. These findings suggest that while WLB may temporarily relieve stress, long-term satisfaction and organizational loyalty are better supported through active career planning (CP) and management.
The Interplay Between WLB, Career Development and JS
Emerging research increasingly acknowledges the interplay between WLB, career development, and JS (Maclean et al., 2021). Studies show that WLB can only contribute meaningfully to JS when accompanied by opportunities for career advancement (Datta & Agarwal, 2017). The mediating role of career development is essential for understanding why some women remain engaged, while others disengage or exit, despite having access to flexible work options.
From a systems perspective, effective WPP—such as supportive HR practices, equitable promotions, and structured development programs—are key enablers in enhancing WLB and career outcomes. These observations support the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model, which posits that resources like institutional support mitigate the effects of job demands and promote employee engagement and satisfaction (van Bussel et al., 2010).
Hypotheses Formation
H1: WLB and CM have a significant positive relationship.
H2: WPP significantly influence CM.
H3: CM has a significant positive effect on JS.
H4: WPP significantly influence JS.
H5: CM mediates the relationship between WPP and JS.
H6: CM fully mediates the relationship between WLB and JS.
Methodology
Sample and Data Collection
This study employed a quantitative research design, and data were gathered using a structured questionnaire administered online and offline. A total of 171 valid responses were collected from married working women employed in the private and government sectors. Participants were drawn from major metropolitan cities, including Delhi, Chennai, Chandigarh, Bengaluru, and Mumbai. These locations were selected because they offer diverse organizational cultures. The inclusion of respondents from varied sectors and cities provides contextual depth and strengthens the external validity of the findings. A convenience sampling technique was employed to recruit participants based on their accessibility and willingness to participate, ensuring representation of women across various professional backgrounds in the health and education sectors.
Measures (Appendix)
The questionnaire of the study was divided into five parts; the first part of the questionnaire included the demographic profile of the respondents, the second part contained 10 items related to WLB, the third part contained 8 items related to WPP and the fourth part consisted of 17 items related to CM and fifth part consist of seven items related to JS, using a seven-point Likert scale (from 1 = strongly agree to 7 = strongly disagree). The scale for WLB was adapted and modified (Netemeyer et al., 1996). The scale for WPP was adapted and modified (Franco et al., 2021; Ojo et al., 2014). The scale for CM was adapted and modified (Adekola, 2011; Aruldoss et al., 2021). The scale for JS was adapted and modified (Aruldoss et al., 2021). Figure 1 illustrates the research model.
Structural Equation Modeling.
Common Method Bias
Given that data were collected using self-reported questionnaires, Harman’s single-factor test was employed to assess the presence of common method bias. All items were subjected to an unrotated exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The results revealed that the first factor accounted for 45.22% of the total variance, which is below the 50% threshold recommended in the literature (Podsakoff et al., 2003). This indicates that common method bias did not pose a significant threat to the validity of the results.
Result
This study employed structural equation modeling (SEM) using AMOS 23 software, adopting the two-step analytical procedure recommended by Anderson et al. (1988) in conjunction with SPSS, for assessing the proposed research framework. The process began with validating the measurement model to confirm the reliability and validity of the constructs. Following this, the structural model was formulated. Prior to conducting these analyses, the demographic profiles of the respondents were analyzed using SPSS to provide contextual background for the study.
Demographic Characteristics
The study comprised a diverse group of working women representing various age groups, educational backgrounds, employment types, and organizational settings. Most respondents were between the ages of 26 and 35, held postgraduate qualifications (49.1%), and were employed full-time (84.8%). Most participants reported working more than 50 hours per week, and a substantial proportion (59.1%) earned an annual income above 7 lakh INR. The sample included women from private (55.6%) and government (44.4%) organizations. A detailed demographic profile of the participants is presented in Table 1.
Frequencies for Demographic Characteristics of Respondents (N = 171).
Reliability and Validity of the Measurement Model
The results of the validity analysis confirm that all constructs in the model demonstrate strong convergent validity and acceptable discriminant validity. Composite Reliability (CR) values for all variables exceed the recommended threshold of 0.70, ranging from 0.921 to 0.975, indicating excellent internal consistency (Anderson et al., 1988). The Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values are also above the minimum benchmark of 0.50, confirming convergent validity across all constructs (Kline, 2018). Discriminant validity was assessed using the Fornell and Larcker criterion, where the square root of the AVE (diagonal values) for each construct was greater than its correlations with other constructs, and all Maximum Shared Variance (MSV) values were less than the corresponding AVE values (Kline, 2018).
Notably, WFC and Family-Work Conflict (FWC) show a strong positive correlation (r = 0.841), as expected due to their conceptual similarity. CP and JS also exhibit a moderate to strong correlation (r = 0.652), indicating a meaningful relationship. Similarly, CM is significantly correlated with both JS (r = 0.739) and WPP (MPPW) (r = 0.726), emphasizing the central role of institutional support in shaping career-related outcomes. Overall, the validity analysis supports the reliability and distinctiveness of the constructs used in the model, thereby confirming the soundness of the measurement framework presented in Table 2.
Summary of Validity Analysis.
EFA and Communalities
An EFA using principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted to examine the underlying structure and suitability of the measurement items. The underlying structure of the items used to measure the variables in this study was found using EFA. The number of elements to be extracted was determined using PCA, which enabled the identification of observable variables that showed a consistent correlation (Ul Hadia et al., 2016). The variables included in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were determined in large part by the components recovered by EFA (Pallant, 2020; Ul Hadia et al., 2016). To guarantee measurement reliability, CFA only kept objects with high factor loadings.
Table 3 lists the items retained for each of the four variables. The results demonstrate high dependability for every factor, with Cronbach’s alpha surpassing 0.70. The majority of factor loadings are considered good or superior when they exceed 0.50. Sample adequacy is confirmed by a KMO value of 0.845 (n = 171), and the use of EFA was validated by Bartlett’s test of sphericity (p < .001).
Exploratory Factor Analysis of Measuring Instruments.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
A CFA was conducted in AMOS 23, as indicated by Kline (2018). CFA tests the extent to which a researcher’s a priori and theoretical pattern of factor loadings on pre-specified constructs represents the actual data. Therefore, CFA’s primary purpose is to confirm the underlying structure and dimensionality of constructs. The fit indices were CMIN = 1781.782, df = 801, CMIN/DF = 2.224, CFI = 0.982, TLI = 0.897, RMSEA = 0.057. Figure 2 illustrates CFA.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis.
Structural Equation Modeling
A SEM was developed to examine the causal relationships between WLB, WPP, CM, and their collective influence on JS. The model highlights both direct and indirect pathways, revealing that WPP significantly influence CM (β = 0.82) and JS (β = 0.56). In contrast, WLB shows a weaker direct effect on CM (β = 0.06). CM, in turn, positively predicts JS (β = 0.54), suggesting its mediating role. The covariance between WLB and WPP was also considered (cov = 0.22). The model fit indices confirmed an excellent fit (CMIN = 1.568, DF = 1, CMIN/DF = 1.568, RMR = 0.025, GFI = 0.995, CFI = .999, RMSEA = 0.058).
The model fit indices further support the adequacy of the proposed framework. The Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI = 0.973) and Comparative Fit Index (CFI = 0.924) both exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.90, indicating a strong overall model fit (Gautama, 2022). The Root Mean Square Residual (RMR = 0.029) also fell well within acceptable limits, suggesting minimal residual error. However, the chi-square value (χ2 = 22.982) with 1 degree of freedom and a high χ2/df ratio (22.982) indicates a less-than-ideal fit, likely influenced by the sensitivity of the chi-square statistic to sample size. Despite this, the model demonstrates acceptable fit and provides meaningful insights into the dynamics of WLB, CM, and JS among working women.
The results of the SEM revealed several significant relationships among the studied variables. WPP demonstrated a strong and statistically significant positive effect on CM (β = 0.820, CR = 16.210, p < .001), indicating that supportive institutional policies play a crucial role in enhancing women’s ability to manage their careers effectively. Additionally, WPP were also found to have a significant direct impact on JS (β = 0.559, CR = 8.486, p < .001), suggesting that a favorable working environment contributes positively to women’s overall satisfaction with their jobs. CM significantly predicted JS (β = 0.543, CR = 8.745, p < .001), confirming its mediating role in the relationship between institutional support and satisfaction outcomes. However, WLB did not exhibit a statistically significant effect on CM (β = 0.059, CR = 1.680, p = .093), implying that while balancing work and personal life is essential, it may not directly influence CM behaviors in this sample (Table 4).
Summary of Hypothesis Testing.
Mediation Analysis
The mediation analysis revealed that CM significantly mediates the relationships between WPP, WLB, and JS. For WPP, the direct effect (β = 0.559) and the indirect impact through CM (β = 0.445) were statistically significant, indicating partial mediation. This suggests that supportive WPP not only have a direct influence on enhancing JS but also indirectly improves it by strengthening CM practices. In contrast, WLB showed no direct effect on JS (β = 0.000), but had a small yet significant indirect effect through CM (β = 0.032), indicating full mediation. This implies that WLB contributes to JS only when it positively impacts CM. Overall, these findings highlight the critical mediating role of CM in linking institutional support and work-life dynamics to women’s JS presented in Table 5.
Summary of the Mediation Effect.
Discussions
Major Findings
The results reveal that institutional support, particularly through WPP, plays a pivotal role in shaping women’s career outcomes and overall JS. This study found that WPP not only directly impact JS but also indirectly enhances CM among working women. This dual pathway underscores the significance of formal organizational policies in shaping immediate job experiences and long-term career trajectories (Agbanyo & Jiang, 2025). Similar trends have been consistently reported across global research, which show that structured flexible work arrangements and family-friendly organizational policies enhance women’s JS and overall well-being (Chung & van der Horst, 2020; Harrop et al., 2025), aligning with Aruldoss et al. (2022) who emphasize that organizational support through training, flexibility, and developmental initiatives reduces stress and increases satisfaction for women managing multiple roles.
A significant sectoral difference emerged in the present study, where women employed in government organizations reported higher JS compared to those in the private organizations. This pattern supports previous studies demonstrating that government jobs in India offer more job stability, predictable working hours, and stronger institutionalized benefits, which boost job security and happiness (Conti & Sette, 2013; Rastogi & Bansal, 2012). Comparable patterns have been observed globally. For example, public-sector employees in Australia and the UK often report higher satisfaction due to more stable employment structures and consistent work-life policies (Boyne et al., 1999; Chung & van der Horst, 2020).
Government organizations also offer more organized maternity leave, childcare support, and lower performance requirements, which is helpful for women balancing family and job. Given these findings, the private sector can emulate government policies, including predictable and flexible work schedules, expanded maternity and childcare support, transparent promotion and appraisal processes, and reduced job intensity during child-planning periods. Tabassum & Nayak (2021) and Harrop et al. (2025) found that gender-sensitive HR practices enhance women’s career continuity, reduce turnover intentions, and improve work satisfaction. These approaches can help private companies establish more supportive, family-friendly workplaces that retain and engage women.
Furthermore, the analysis confirmed that CM acts as a bridge between institutional support and JS. When women perceive that their careers are actively supported and managed within the organization, they are more likely to feel satisfied. This supports the findings of Abendroth and den Dulk (2011) demonstrated that supportive work environments positively influence job commitment and satisfaction, often mediated through work-life facilitation mechanisms. The strategic career support thus appears to enhance women’s ability to navigate the demands of their roles while pursuing meaningful professional growth.
Interestingly, while WLB did not directly affect JS, it contributed indirectly through CM—indicating a case of full mediation. This suggests that simply balancing personal and professional domains is not enough; opportunities for career advancement and recognition must accompany such a balance. These findings are conceptually aligned with the logic of spillover theory (Sirgy & Lee, 2018), which posits that job-related benefits spill over into other life domains more meaningfully when organizational systems facilitate that integration. Therefore, women’s satisfaction at work is significantly shaped not just by balance but by how that balance translates into career opportunities.
Moreover, the relationship between WPP and JS was partially mediated through CM. This aligns with the JD-R model, as discussed by Bakker and Demerouti (2007) which posits that supportive resources, such as workplace flexibility and developmental policies, buffer the impact of job demands and enhance motivation and performance. The findings suggest that women who experience supportive organizational climates are better equipped to manage their careers and feel more fulfilled in their jobs.
Altogether, the SEM results strongly reinforce the idea that institutional mechanisms—especially career-focused policies and supports—are central to helping working women achieve satisfaction and growth. These findings align closely with Aruldoss et al. (2022) argued that work-friendly environments and well-integrated human resource practices are crucial for fostering women’s well-being and organizational engagement (Table 6).
Summary Table of Key Findings.
Key findings at a glance
WFC and FWC significantly influence JS among working women. CM partially mediates the relationship between WPP and JS. Women employed in government organizations report higher JS compared to those in private-sector roles. Effective WPP (flexibility, supportive supervisors, maternity benefits) directly enhance JS and reduces career interruptions.
Practical Implications
The findings underscore the importance of institutional support in enhancing women’s professional satisfaction and development. Organizations, especially in the private sector, ought to enhance WPP, including flexible schedules, career mentoring, and family-friendly provisions, to improve CM opportunities and mitigate work-life conflict. Implementing structured career development programs and leadership training specifically designed for women can enhance career advancement and retention. Government institutions have consistently demonstrated superior outcomes in terms of JS. Consequently, private institutions should consider adopting analogous supportive policies to cultivate a more inclusive and empowering environment for women in the workforce. Furthermore, given that CM serves as a significant mediator, it is advisable for employers to allocate resources toward personalized CP frameworks that assist women in effectively navigating their personal and professional objectives. Considering that women in the government sector exhibited greater satisfaction, private organizations may benefit from sectoral benchmarking. Adopting flexible work schedules, establishing promotion frameworks, and implementing family-friendly policies similar to those in government institutions may enhance employee satisfaction and retention. Cross-sector learning would facilitate the development of equitable and gender-sensitive human resource systems across various industries.
Limitations
Although intersectional factors such as caste, religion, and rural–urban background can influence women’s career experiences in India, these dimensions were not included in the present study. The focus of this research is to understand the challenges faced by working women in general who are planning for a child, regardless of their social identity. Since the objective was to examine broad patterns of work-family dynamics rather than identity-specific differences, intersectional variables were beyond the scope of this study. However, their importance is acknowledged, and future research may incorporate intersectional factors to provide a more nuanced understanding of women’s career trajectories.
Conclusion
This study presents a comprehensive model of women’s career happiness in India, integrating CM, WLB, and institutional support into a unified analytical framework. By placing in context how organizational assistance might promote women’s continued involvement and enjoyment in the workforce, it adds to the worldwide conversation on gendered employment. The results have significant theoretical and practical ramifications. By demonstrating that institutional resources, such as encouraging HR policies and developmental frameworks, act as mediating mechanisms between work-life demands and satisfaction, this study theoretically enhances the JD-R and spillover models. Practically speaking, the findings underscore the need for businesses, particularly those in the private sector, to adopt gender-responsive, integrated HR strategies that align career advancement with personal balance initiatives.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.