The Indian—Americans in The United States: Participation in the U.S. Political Process

On April 1, 1994 more than 9 million of American people (3.5%) identified themselves as Asian - Pacific Islanders, 26 million (9.9%) as Hispanic, 32.5 million (12.5%) as Blacks and 192.5 million (74.1%) as Whites. See. Func and Wagnalls Corporation (New Jersey): The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1995, P. 373. The Red Indians are called “American Indians” while the Asian Indians are known as “Indian Americans”

This article is primarily based on secondary data and information. Primary data as available in India have been made use of. But questionnaires, interviews and other basic sources which should have formed the basis of this article could not be resorted to due to non-availability in India. Therefore, many questions could not be answered. The researcher acknowledges this shortcoming

See, (a) U.S. Immigration and Naturalization service: Annual Report, 1976 (Washington D. C.); PP. 86–88; b) U.S. Immigration Service: Annual Report (Washington D.C., Government Printing Officer, 1975), PP. 62-64. The people of Indian origin have immigrated to the U.S. not only from India, but from Africa, Europe and West Indies as well. For example, quite a few Indians took refuge in the U.S. after they were expelled from Uganda in 1972

Jensen Joan M. - “East Indians”, in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (Harvard University Press, Massachusetts, 1980, P. 296. Punjabis- the residents of the Punjab State in North India - are mostly Sikhs by religion. They wear turbans as their religious custom. As a result, the influx of the Punjabis at this period was termed as ‘Tide of Turbans’

Takaki Ronald - “Strangers From A Different Shore: A History Of Asian Americans (Boston, 1989), PP. 294–297, 306, 308. “In 1919”, Takaki writes, “Indians leased 86,315 acres and owned 2,077 acres in California.”

In 1910 U.S. vs Balsara case and in 1913 Akhoy Kumar Majumdar case, the court ruled that the Asian Indians were ‘Caucasians’ and for that matter they were whites and eligible for citizenship under the U.S. Citizenship law of 1790. But in 1923, in the U.S. vs Bhagat Singh Thind case the Supreme Court declared that although Indians were causations they were not ‘white’ and hence ineligible for citizenship. For the reference see, Harvard Encyclopedia, (foot note no. 4) P. 299; also see, RowenaFong - “A History of Asian Americans”, in sharlene Meada Furto, Renuka Biswas (ED) - Social Work Practice With Asian Americans (New Delhi, 1992) P. 12; Gordon Leonard A “The Indian Experience”, Span (USIS, New Delhi) Vol XXXIII, No. 1, January 1992, P. 18 After the Supreme Court decision in Thind case in 1923, Indians in California were notified to dispose of their landholdings under the state's Alien Land Law of 1913

See Ronald Takaki, (foot note no. 5) PP. 305. 309-310

See. U.S. Immigration Service: Annual Report (Washington D.C 1975), PP. 62-64; Ronald Takaki P. 369; D. S Saund - Congressman From India (Newyork, 1960), PP. 72-83

See. Rowena fong - “A History of Asian Americans”, Social Work Practice With Asian Americans, foot note no. 6), P 18; Gorden Leonard A - “The Indian Experience”, Span (USIS, New Delhi) January 1992, P. 19. The first quota law was introduced in 1921 which allowed entry of only one hundred Indians annually. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 provided a special quota system for the countries which fell within the boundary of “Asia - Pacific Triangle” i.e countries from India to Japan and all pacific Islands north of Australia and New Guinea. The 1965 enactment “reversed a half century old policy of discrimination against Asian immigrants” See, Maxine P. Fisher - The Indians In New York City: A Study of Immigrants From India (Columbia, 1980), PP. 9-11

In 1917 the U.S. Congress enacted an immigration restrictive law which created Asiatic ‘barred zone’, The law denied the entry of the Indians in the U.S

U.S. Immigration and Naturalization service, 1989: Statistical year book (Washington D.C.; Government printing officer, 1990) tables − 3 and 27

See. Gale Research Inc., Washington D.C. 1993: Statistical Record of Asian Americans, Table − 732

U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1991: Statistical year book, tables 12 and 18

For reference see, The Telegraph, Magazine (Calcutta, India), June 26, 1994, P. 5

See for reference, Statistical Record of Asian Americans, 1993 (foot note no. 11). tables 801, P. 689

See, Barnard D. Sami - “India to America, America to India “in Y. D. Prasad (ED) - American Studies in India (Patna, India, 1990), P. 301. Many in India express concern at the exodus of bright and promising graduates and professionals from India, which are cited as clear instances of “brain drain” without compensating gains for the economy. But the reverse opinion also holds ground which points out, the graduates and professionals immigrated to the U.S. are semi-finished human capital. Many of them are getting higher degrees and specialization in respective fields at the cost not of India's. If they opt to return to India and invest their improved technical knowledge and money in various fields, the brain drain is likely to be more than compensated (see for reference, “Brain drain might pay dividends in the form of investment and know-how” - Tapas Majumdar, The Telegraph (Calcutta) 8 August 1994. Many Indian American professionals are taking call from home; see “Return Loop” - Batuk vora Little India (Pennsylvania, 19604) June 1995, Vol 5. No. 6, PP. 29-33

Nixon R. M. - 1999: Victory Without War (New York, 1988), P. 273

See. Tapas Majumdar, The Telegraph, (foot note No. 15) August 8, 1994. Also see, New York Times, April 20, 1986, P. 37; “Indians in America going well” - Helweg, Arthur and Usha, Span (USIS, New Delhi) February 1982, PP. 15-20

U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of Census: Statistical Abstract of the U.S. (Washington D.C. 1995) Table 55, P. 52

For the figures see, Statistical Record of Asian Americans (foot note no 11) Tables 372, 829, 830, 832, PP. 284, 718-722; Statistical Abstract of the U.S. (foot note no. 18) Table 55. According to a survey by India abroad, 76.1 per cent of Asian Indians hold managerial and professional posts and about 16 per cent of them earn more than $50,000 per annum and over 3 per cent earn more than $35,000 per annum. Quoted by B. Ramesh Babu - “The Indian Americans: A Minority In The Making” in B Ramesh Babu (ED) - Minorities and the American Political system (New Delhi, 1989), P. 141

One Indian woman Mrs. Kavelle Bajaj who runs a multimillion dollar Computer Company - I-net Inc - in the U.S. won the “entrepreneur of the year” award for 1995 (see The Telegraph, October 25, 1995, P. 3). For the number of business owned by the Indians in some leading Metropolitan areas see, Statistical Record of Asian Americans, Table 78

See. The Telegraph (Calcutta), September 21, 1996, P. 4

Dan Nimmo Thomas Ungs - Political Patterns In America: Conflict, Representation And Resolution (San Francisco, 1979) P. 111

For reference see, L. P. Mathur - Indian Revolutionary Movement in the United States of America (Delhi 1970). The Ghadar party base in the U.S. was destroyed in 1917 as the U.S. Government “Under British Pressure” started to prosecute and imprison several Asian Indians “for conspiracy to violate the neutrality laws”. See Ronald Takaki (foot note no. 5), PP. 298-299

Saund D. S. - Congressman from India (New york, 1960), PP. 73–75. Mrs. Clare Booth Luce - the then Congresswoman from Connecticut - and Mr. Emanuel Celler - the Congressman from New York, jointly sponsored the Luce - Celler Bill. Without belittling the efforts of the Indian Americans in obtaining the citizenship rights and getting the bill passed into law another reason behind the enactment of this bill may be mentioned. And it is all related to 2nd World War politics. During the war the Americans needed Indian support against Japan and India's policy at that time in fact, matched to the U.S. strategy. This is said to have had buoyed the demands of the Indians for naturalization rights (Takaki, PP. 367-369). Another consideration which might have also influenced was the U.S. expectation that an independent India would one day become a major power in Asian affairs, hence nothing should be done that could antagonize and alienate India and the Asian Indians. (For reference see, Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, P. 299)

For example, Ms. Kanak Dutt was one unsuccessful Democratic candidate in 1980 for a seat in the legislature of New Jersey. Many others also tried at different times in different states. Only a couple of Years ago one Indian - Kumar Barve - was elected to the state assembly in Maryland. In 1944 there were Indian Mayors in the cities of Hollywood and Teaneck. The Telegraph Magazine (Calcutta) June 26, 1994, P. 4). So far, Dalip Singh Saund was the only Indian elected in the Congress in 1956 and again in 1958 from the 29th Congressional District of California

According to a survey conducted by the Republican National Committee in August 1992 over 5000 Asian Americans, it is found that 3.8% Indians are strong Democrats, 52.5% Indians are Democrats, no strong Republication and 23.8% Indians are Republican. In that survey 56.3% Indians expressed that the Democratic party cares more about Asian Indians, only 5.0% Indians expressed Republican party cares more for them. These figures are quoted in Statistical Record of Asian Americans (foot note no. 11) Tables 41, 45, 46 and 53. For the reference of Ramesh Kapur see, The Telegraph Magazine, June 26, 1994, P. 7. In the Congressional election of November 1994 three Indians sought to contest on Democratic party tickets. While Peter Mathews ultimately could contest, Neil Dhillon and Ram Uppuluri had challengers of their own party in September whom they could not defeat

Source: Republican National Committee Survey of August 1992, quoted in Statistical Record of Asian Americans, Table 39

See. The Telegraph (Calcutta) September 21, 1996, P, 4; - October 20, 1996. In fund raising for Clinton one Indian, Yogesh Gandhi, was listed by the Republican candidate Bob Dole as one of the controversial contributors to the election of Clinton. See, The Asian Age (Calcutta) October 20, 1996

“Asian Indians in the United States” - P. Saran in Hyung, Chan Kim (ED) - Dictionary of Asian American History (New York, 1986), PP. 24–25

For the roles played by Indian associations in the said causes see, Saund D. S. - Congressman From India, PP. 72–83; Maxine P. Fisher - The Indians of New York city: A study of Immigrants From India (Columbia, 1980), PP. 9-11

Source: Republican National Committee Survey, August 1992, quoted in Statistical Record of Asian Americans (foot note NO. 11) Tables 31, 32, 47, 49, 52 and 53

New York Times August 21, 1988, See XXII, P. 4, Cal - 6

“Voices of A New Generation: Storming the Citadel” - Anuradha Anand, Little India (Pennsylvania - 19604) February 1995, vol. 5 No. 2 PP. 27-31

See “Indians With An American Dream” - Pais Athur J. , The Telegraph, Magazine June 26, 1994, P. 5

For Saund's perception see, Saund D. S. - Congressman From India, P. 81. For attacks on Indians see, the statement of the Mr. Don Edwards, Chairman, before the U.S. Congress, House, Subcommittee on Civil And Constitutional Rights, Committee on Judiciary, Hearing on” Anti - Asian violence”, November, 10 1987, P-1 Also see New York Times April 20, 1986, See I, P. 37, Cal-1; - October 12, 1987, See II, P. I Cal - 2; - July 10, 1988. XII. P. I Col I; - January 22, 1989, See I P. 28 Cal -1

See, New York Times October 12, 1987, See II, P. I, Cal-2 Also see, the statement of the Representative Mr. Matsui before the House Sub-Committee on Civil and Constitutional Rights (foot note no. 35) PP. 13-14: Rowena fong in Social Work Practice (foot note no. 6) p. 21; New York Times, February 20, 1994, Sec. I. P. 43, Cal - 3

For reference see, Daniel Roger - Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1950 (university of Washington Press, 1988), P. 341. See, Social Work Practice (foot note no. 6) P. 22; see, Little India (Pennsylvania) June 1995, vol. 5 No. 6, P. 31. In 1992 the U.S. Civil Rights Commission in its report found that Asian Americans faced Widespread discrimination in workplace and were often victims of racially motivated harrassment and Violence. New York Times, February 29, 1992. See I. P. I. Col I; March 3, 1992 Sec. A, P. 22, Col. I (Editorial)

For reference see, New York Times, April 20, 1986, P. 37, Col - I. October 8, 1987, sec II, P3 Col. 2: - July 10, 1988, Sec XII, P. I Col - 1. There are instances to show that their ethnic interests could be promoted by their involvement in politics. For instance, they could persuade Representative Dioguardi to introduce a bill in Congress to construct a statute of M. K Gandhi (called in India the Father of the Nation) in Washington D.C. See. New York Times, August 21, 1988, Sec XXII, P. 4 Col - 6

For Pakistan's perception of India see, Md. Ayub Khan - Friends Not Masters (Karachi, 1967), PP. 129-130; Z.A Bhutto - Myth of Independence (Karachi. 1969) p. 79. For India's perception against Pakistan's bid to involve outside powers in South Asian politics see, “Outside Interference In South Asia And Perception of India, Pakistan And Nepal” - Tanmay Kanjilal Asian Studies (Calcutta) October - December 1989, Vol. 7 No. 4, PP. 15-40

See Saund D. S. - Congressman From India, PP. 186–188

The Telegraph, August 1, 1994

The Telegraph, September 20, 1994. State of Kashmir became an integral part of India after its annexation with India in 1948. But Pakistan does not accept this position and demands plebiscite in Kashmir. Failing in that, she began to create problems in Kashmir, and as such internal problem of India. The U.S. position on Kashmir is not very different from Pakistan's and Washington considers Kashmir a disputed territory

See. New York Times, August 21, 1988; see XXII P. 4 Col - 6

Ibid; Also see, The Telegraph Magazine, June 26, 1994, P. 7. For the names and the positions held by the Indians in White House, Boards, Commissions, Executive Branches and Independent Agencies, during the Bush Administration (1989-92) and Clinton Administration (1993-1996, 1997-) see. Statistical Record of Asian Indians (foot note no. 11) Tables 829-832, PP. 718-722

See, “The Indian Americans: A Minority In the Making” - Babu B. Ramesh in. B. Ramesh Babu (ED) - Minorities and the American Political System (New Delhi 1989). P. 143

See, Little India (foot note no 33), PP. 27–31

Saund D. S. - Congressman From India, P. 72 Also see B. Ramesh Babu (foot note no 45), PP. 148-149

Neil Dhillon, an Indian Political activist, says that “When second and third generation Indian American school kids come up to me, shake my hands and tell me that they too want to go into public life”, he is overwhelmed. He appeals to their parents - “Get them to join the debating societies, student government……. Encourage them to seek internship with Congressmen” (See, The Telegraph Magazine June 26, 1994, P. 8). There are some Indian associations in the U.S whose one major objective is to spread political education among the Indian Americans (see The Newyork Times, August 21, 1988, See XXII, P 4 Col 6). Also see. Little India (foot note no. 46)

There are also few instances that suggest that sometimes Indians and Indian associations vie and clash for gaining community's leadership. For reference see the news caption “Indians bicker on I-day in U.S.” - The Telegraph, July 21, 1994

In the survey of August 1992 (foot note no. 26), no Indian said he was “Very Conservative”, 20.0% Indians informed they were “somewhat conservative”. While 47.5% were “middle of the road”, 27.5% considered themselves “somewhat conservative” and 5.0% were “very liberal” - see Statistical Record of The Asian Americans. Table 48, P. 29

See, “Immigrants Down Under are home aren't they?” Thakur Ramesh The Asian Age (Calcutta, India), November 16, 1996

India employs lobbyist firms in the U.S. to reach and influence members of the Congress and other decision making centres. India is now without any employed lobbyist in the U.S. (See. The Telegraph February 3, 1997, p. 4)

See. “The influence of Hyphenated Americans On U.S. Foreign Polity” - Garson Luis L. in abdul Aziz said (ED) - Ethnicity And U.S. Foreign Policy. (New York, 1977), PP 54-55

See The Telegraph, news caption: “Indians in U.S. raise @500,00 for Clinton campaign”, September 21, 1996

See for reference, The Telegraph December 10, 1996; - November 10, 1994

See New York Times, April 20, 1986, P. 37, Col - I

See, Saund D. S. - Congressman From India, PP - 152–183

This is the observation of Ram Uppuluri, and Indian political activist who aspired to run for a Congressional seat in 1994. See, The Telegraph, Magazine, June 26, 1994, P. 7. In this connection also see, New York Times, August 21, 1988, see XXII P. 4, Col - 6

Saund D. S. - Congressman From India, P. 119

See, “Campus Complex” - Pais Auther J. , The Telegraph, Magazine, January 22, 1995, P. 7

See, Saund D. S. , PP. 73–83; The Telegraph Magazine June 26, 1994, PP. 5-7

New York Times (foot note no 58)

Because of the lack of data in India, the questions like which categories of Indian population are taking part in politics and which categories are not, what is the thinking of Indians of different age groups regarding political participation, reasons of low participation, the steps contemplated by the community leaders towards higher participation are the Indians content with their present form and degree of participation, do they think they have contributions to U.S. political system etc. could not be answered. In 1994 four Asian Americans were elected to the House of Representatives and two were elected to senate (from Hawaii) see, The Statistical Abstract of the U.S. (foot note no 18) Table 438 P. 274 Also see, Facts On Fill (New York) 1995, P. 2; Social Work Practice With Asian Americans (foot note no 6), P. 23

In 1994 four Asian Americans were elected to the House of Representatives and two were elected to senate (from Hawaii) see The Statistical Abstract of the U.S. (foot note no. 18). Table 438 P. 274 Also see, Facts On Fill (New York) 1995, P. 2; Social Work Practice with Asian Americans (foot note no. 6) P. 23

Some Indian Politicians viz kanak Dutta (from New Jersey). Ram Hingorani (Connecticut) contested election for state assemblies, but were, however, unsuccessful. A couple of years ago, one Indian Mr. Kumar Barve, was elected to the state assembly of Maryland. Mayors of Hollywood (B.k. Srinivas), Teareck (John Abrahan) etc. were Indian (for reference see, The Telegraph, Magazine, June 26, 1994, P. 4

See. Statistical Record of Asian Americans Table 37. In a survey conducted by the Republican National Committee in August 1984, it is found that only 8.8% Indians informed that they ever participated personally in campaign rallies

Ibid; Table 38

See., “Minorities and Election: some Implications For the American Political System” - Kamath P. M. , in B. Ramesh Babu (ED) Minorities And American Political System (New Delhi, 1969) P. 160. Also see, Statistical Record of Asian Americans, Table 53

Source: Republican National Committee Survey over 5000 Asian Americans in August 1992, See, Statistical Record of Asian Americans, Table 49

Ibid; Tables 26, 27, P. 18

The Telegraph, September 21, 1996

Statistical Record Asian Americans, Table 39, P. 24

Ibid; Table 42, P. 26. Also See, New York Times, April 20, 1986, P. 37, Col. I

For Instance, see the remarks of Ram Uppuluri - the Indian American political activist in The Telegraph Magazine June 26, 1994, PP. 5-7

See Lee Joann Faung Jean - Asian American Experiences in the United States (North Carolina, 1991), P. 110

This is purely the observation of this author. This observation it is agreed is debatable, and needs further study. There are, however, not such documents - in India that will suggest that the Indians are using their political clout - howsoever low that may be - informing a common Asian political Platform with common agenda. See in this connection New York Times, September 10, 1983 see I.P.I Col I; May 28, 1992, Sec A, P. 23, Col 2. Also see, Rowena Fong in Social Work Practice (foot note No. 6), PP. 21-22

“Asian Indians in the United States” Saran Parmatma , in Hyung, Chan Kim (ED) Dictionary of Asian American History (New York, 1986), PP. 26–27