Islamic Fundamentalism and Pakistan's Foreign Policy

Qari Mohammed Sarfaraz Husayn , Islam, Calcutta 1910, p. 2. Also see Quran, 3: 19-20, 83-5, iii; 10; 90. For authentic translation of the Quran see A.J. Arberry, The Koran Interpreted, London, 1935.

Joommal A.S.K. , “What is Islam”, The Muslim Digest, vol. 33, No. 10, 11, May-June 1985, pp. 127–30. Also see Dorothea Seelye Franck, ed., Islam in the Modern World, Washington, 1961, p. 3.

Haque Zia ul , “Islamisation of Society in Pakistan” in Asghar Khan, Islam, Politics and the State: The Pakistan Experiences, 1985, p. 117.

Philip H. Stoddard, David C. Cuthell, and Margaret N. Sullivan eds; Changes and the Muslim World, Syracuse, 1981, p. 1

Karaosmanaglu Ali L. , “Islam and Foreign Policy: A Turkish Experience”, Foreign Policy vol. xii, no. 1-2, 1985, pp. 64–69

Al-Nowaihl Mohamed , “Problems of Modernization in Islam”, The Muslim World, vol. LXV, 1975, p. 176

Anthony McDermott , “Islam's Revival: The Tests Chead”, Financial Times, 17 February 1979.

Anderson Roy R. , Seibert Robert F. , and Wagner Jon C. , Politics and Change in the Middle-East: Sources of Conflict and Accommodation, New Jersey, 1990, p. 22.

Ibid., p. 20

Kurdi Abdulrahman Abukadir , The Islamic State: A Study based on the Islamic Holy Constitution, (London, 1984, p. 3)

Manzooruddin Ahmed , “Integration of the Muslim World: Problems and Prospects”, Pakistan Horizon, vol. 34, no. 1, 1981, p. 4.

Daniel Pipes , “Understanding Islam in Politics”, Middle East Journal, vol. XVI, no. 2, Winter 1983-84, p. 12.

Ibid.

Karaosmanaglu Ali L. , “Islam and Foreign Policy: A Turkish Perspective”, Foreign Policy, vol. 12, no. 1-2, 1985, p. 64. Also see his “Islam and its implications for the international system in Metin Heper and Raphael Israeli, eds, Islam and Politics in the Modern Middle East, London, 1989.

Choueri Youssef M. , Islamic Fundamentalism, London, 1990, p. 9.

James Barr , Fundamentalism, Philadelphia, 1977, p. 2.

Cited in Agwani M.S. , “Islamic Fundamentalism: Myth and Reality”, Man and Development, vol. 11, no. 3, September 1980, p. 86.

Agwani M.S. , “Islamic Fundamentalism in India”, Democratic World, vol. 16, no. 6, 8 February 1987, p. 10. According to an editorial comment the US have coined the word Islamic fundamentalism as a “dirty word to denote a medieval theocracy and a regression to fanatical rigidity”, Pakistan and Gulf Economist, editorial vol. XI, no. 31, 1-7 August 1992, p. 7.

Vandenbroucke Lucian S. , “Why Allah's Zealots ? A Study of the Causes of Islamic Fundamentalism in Egypt and Saudi Arabia”, Middle East Review, vol. 16, no. 1. Fall 1983, p. 31.

Earnest Gellner , Muslim Society, Cambridge 1981, p. 61.

Vandenbroucke Lucian S. , n. 19, p. 30.

Daniel Pipes , “Understanding Islam in Politics”, n. 12, p. 8.

International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 8, 1968, p. 204.

See for details n. 15 and 16.

Rafique Zakaria , “What Exactly is Islamic Fundamentalism”, The Statesman, 15 September 1985.

“Fundamentalism: Spreading Tentacles”, The Patriot, 2 October 1984.

Anthony Hyman , Muslim Fundamentalism, The Institute for the Study of Conflict, no. 174, 1985, p. 4.

Zaldi A.M. , (ed), Evolution of Muslim Political Thought in India, vol. 1, New Delhi, n.d., p. 51.

For details see, Hottinger Arnold , “Islam in World Politics. The descriptive role of fundamentalism in Programme for strategic and international security”. Occasional papers, 1988, p. 13and also see Detler H. Khalid, “Phenomenon of Re-Islamization”, Mainstream, vol. XVII, no. 42, 16 June 1979, p. 19.

Bernard Lewis , “The Return of Islam” in Michael Curtis, ed., Religion and Politics in the Middle East, Boulder 1981, pp. 10–11, Daniel Pipes, n. 12, p. 4.

Moin Shakir , “Politics of Islamic Fundamentalism”, Mainstrem, vol. 18, no. 42, 14 June 1980, p 15.

Asopa Sheel K. , “Islamic Revivalism and its Implications for Pakistan” in Chopra Surendra ed., Perspectives on Pakistan's Foreign Policy, Amritsar, 1983, p. 298. For a detailed study of Islamic revivalism see Sonia, “Pakistan's Response to Islamic Fundamentalism”, unpublished M. Phil. Dissertation, Amritsar, 1988.

Rafique Zakaria, n. 25

Agawani M.S. , “Islamic Fundamentalism: Political and Economic Dimension”, in M.S. Rajan and Shivaji Ganguly, eds., Great Power Relations: World Order and The Third World, New Delhi, 1981, pp. 264–70

William Kornhauser , The Politics of Mass Society, Chicago, 1959.

See for details, Ismaeil Shaffic, “Iran and the R.C.D.” an unpublished Ph. D. thesis, Punjab University, 1992 and the sources cited therein.

For details see Enayat Hamid , Modern Islam: Political Thought, Austin, 1982, pp. 52–68

Farooqi Naimur Rehman , “Pan-Islamism in the Nineteenth Century”, Islamic Culture, vol. 57, no. 4, April 1983, p. 283.

Tanzimat issued by Sultan Abdul-Medjid in 1839, was intended to establish reforms in taxation and military services in the Turkish empire.

Shaw S.J. , History of the Ottoman Empire and Modem Turkey, vol. 2, Cambridge, 1977, p. 157.

Landau Jacob N. , The Politics of Pan-Islamism: Ideology and Organization, Oxford 1990, pp. 5–6. Also see T.W. Arnold, The Caliphate, Oxford, 1924, J.P. Plseaton, Islam in a World of Nation States, Cambridge, 1985, M. Kramer, Islam Assembled: The Advent of Muslim Congresses, New York, 1986.

For detailed study of the RCD (ECO) and Pakistan's response to it see Chopra Surendra , Pakistan's Thrust in the Muslim World: A Study of the RCD (India As a Factor), New Delhi, 1992.

Voll John O. , Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modem World, Boulder, 1982, pp. 282–91. Also see his The Islamic Past and the Present Resurgence, Current History, vol. 78, no. 456, April 1980, pp. 146-180.

James A. Bill uses the term, “Populist Islam” rather than “Popular Islam” since the latter has long been used by scholars to refer to the local mystical practices involving saint worship, tomb visitation and other activities that sometimes border on superstition. While it is a form of folk Islam defined on the basis of local religious beliefs and practices, ‘Populist Islam’ refers to a general social and political movement generated from below rather than a movement sponsored by government and their supporting bureaucratic apparatus. For details see, Bill James A. , “Resurgent Islam in the Persian Gulf”, Foreign Affairs, vol. 63, no. 1, 1984, p. 108.

See for details, Youssef H. Choure, n. 13, pp. 46–63.

Ibid, pp. 31–52.

Ibid, pp. 46–52, 150-4 and 153-4.

Bill James A. , n. 44

Ibid, p. 111.

Engineer Asghar Ali , New Quest, September-October, 1980, p. 297. For an instructive analysis of regime sponsored fundamentalism see Vandanbrouche, n. 19, p. 34 and the sources cited therein.

For details see, Engineer Asghar Ali , “Why Religious Revivalism among Muslims”, Mainstream, vol. 24, no. 9, 10 November, 1985, pp. 42–46.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Gardezi Hasan N. , “The Resurgence of Islam: Islamic Ideology and Encounters with Imperialism” in Hasan N. Gardezi and Jamail Rashid, eds. Pakistan the Roots of Dictatorship: The Political Economy of a Praetorian Stale, London, 1982, p. 353.

For details sec Jansen G.H. , “Militant Islam: Present State and the Future possibilities” in Metin Heper and Raphael Israeli, Islam and Politics in Modem Middle East, London, 1984, pp. 20–25.

Pirzada Syed Sharifuddin , “Quaid-i-Azam and Islamic Solidarity”, Pakistan Horizon, vol. 29, no. 4, 1976, p. 60.

Pirzada S.S. , “Pakistan and the OIC”, Pakistan Horizon, vol. 40, no. 2, 1987, p. 19.

Ibid.

Extracts from the speech of Jinnah cited in Rehman N. Khalil-Ur , “The Words and Vision of the Quaid-i-Azam”, Pakistan Review, vol. 3, no. 1, January 1955, p. 15.

As cited in Munir Mohammed , Pakistan: From Jinnah to Zia, New Delhi, 1980, p. 30.

Pakistan Constituent Assembly Debates, 11 August 1947. Also see Hamza Alavi: “Pakistan and Islam—It's Ethnicity and Ideology”, Strategic Digest, vol. XVII, no. 3, August 1987, p. 1536.

See for details, Sayeed Khalid B. , “The Jamat-i-Islami Movement in Pakistan”, Pacific Affairs, vol. 30, no. ??? 1957, Saleem M.M. Quershi, “Pakistan Nationalism Reconsidered”, Pacific Affairs, Winter 1972-73, Aziz Ahmed, Activism of the Ulama in Pakistan”, in Nikki R. Keddie ed., Scholars, Saints and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East Since 1500, Berkeley, 1972, pp. 260-61.

“Quaid-i-Azam—Architect of Muslim Renaissance”, Pakistan & Gulf Economist, vol. 1, no. 25, 11-17 September 1982, p. 5

For details see Chopra Surendra , UN Mediation in Kashmir: A Study in Power Politics, Kurukshetra, 1971.

Pirzada Syed Sharifuddin , n. 56, p. 69.

Cited in S.S. Pirzada, n. 57, p. 20, also cited in Sherwani Latif Ahmed , “Jinnah and World Affairs”, Ceylon Daily News, 25 December 1979.

Agwani M.S. , “Pakistan and Pan-Islamism”, Surendra Chopra, Perspectives on Pakistan's Foreign Policy, n. 15, p. 291.

Shankar M. , “Pakistan's Foreign Policy”, Mainstream, vol. 19, no. 40, 9 June 1981, p. 6.

For details see, Smith Wilfred Cantwell , Islam in Modem History, Princeton, 1957, pp. 206–65. E.I.J. Rosenthal, Islam in the Modern National Stale, Cambridge, 1965.

Keith Callard , Pakistan: A Political Study, London 1964, p. 216.

Khan Mohammed Asghar , “Pakistan's Geo-strategic Imperatives” in Asghar Khan, ed., Islam, Politics and the State: The Pakistan Experience, London, 1985, p. 254.

Cited in Som Anand , “Islamlsm and Pakistan's Social Realities”, Man and Development, vol. 2, no. 1, March 1980, p. 97.

Mohammed Munir , n. 60. Also see Sheel K. Asopa, n. 32.

Campbell Robert D. , Pakistan: Emerging Democracy, New Jersey, 1963, p. 127.

Keith Callard , no. 70, p. 315. Also see Surendra Chopra, “Evolution of Pakistan's Foreign Policy and Relations with India” in V.D. Chopra, ed., Studies in Indo-Pak Relations, New Delhi, 1984.

Pakistan News: Karachi, 18 February 1951, pp. 16–17. Also see, S.M. Burke, Pakistan's Foreign Policy: An Analysis, London, 1973, p. 65. Talking about the foundations of Pakistan's foreign policy, Liaquat Ali Khan stressed that “our relations with the Muslim world should not only be friendly but brotherly and they should be made stronger everyday because the mission of Pakistan can achieve its success only when we make other Muslim countries join it”. Afzal M. Rafique ed. Speeches and Statements of Quaid-i-Millat, Liaquat Ali Khan 1941-51. Lahore, 1967, p. 432.

Pirzade Syed Sharifuddin , “Quaid-i-Azam and Islamic Solidarity” Pakistan Horizon, vol. 29, no. 4, 1976, pp. 60 & 69.

Rajput A.B. , The Muslim League, London, 1948, p. 204.

“Pakistan's Role in International Affairsy”, The Second Year: Pakistan 1948-49, Karachi, 1949, p. 1.

As cited in Siddiqui Aslam , Pakistan Seeks Security, Lahore, 1960, p. 88.

Ibid.

Ibid. See also Dawn, 10 February 1951.

Dawn, 10 February 1951.

Dawn, 26 November 1949. For details of Pakistan's relations with the Muslim world in the first five years of her independence see, Five Years of Pakistan August 1947-1952, Karachi, n.d., pp. 225-29.

Dawn, 26 November 1949.

Burke S.M. , n. 76 pp. 66–67.

Arif Hussain , Pakistan: Its Ideology and Foreign Policy, London, 1966, p. 16.

For an impact of Pakistan's participation in the Middle East see Sisir Gupta, “Islam as a Factor of Pakistani Foreign Policy” in M.S. Rajan and Shivaji Ganguly eds. India and the International System, New Delhi 1981, pp. 88–110, Also see Khalida Qurashi, Pakistan and the Middle East, “Pakistan Horizon, vol. 19, no. 2, 1966, p. 159 and Surendra Chopra” “Pakistan, Pacts and Kashmir, Indian Journal of Political Sience”, vol. 25, no. 4, 1965.

Ahmed M. , Pakistan and the Middle East, Karachi, 1948, p. 205–6.

For details sec Agwani M.S. , “Pakistan and Pan-Islamism” in Surendra Chopra, ed., n. 32, pp. 292–93.

Cited in Arif Hussain , Pakistan: Its Ideology and Foreign Policy, London, 1966, pp. 143–44.

See for details Taylor David , “The Politics of Islam and Islamization in Pakistan” in Piscatori James P. ed., Islam in the Political Process, Cambridge, 1984, pp. 191–92.

Ibid, Also see, Wolf-Phillips Leslie , “Constitutional Legitimacy in Pakistan 1977-1982”, in Wolfgang Peter Zingel et. al. eds., Pakistan in its Fourth Decade: Current Political, Social and Economic Situation and Prospects. The 1980s, Hamburg, 1983, pp. 16–57.

“The Preamble”, Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 1956. Also see, M. Rafi Raza, “The Continuous Process of Re-writing the Constitution”, in Wolfgang Peter Zingel, et. al. eds., pp. 1-15.

Ibid.

Ibid, Part IV, Article 32.

Ibid, Part XII, Article 197.

Ibid, Article 198.

Ibid, Part III, Directive Principles of State Policy, Article 24, “The State shall endeavor to strengthen the bonds of unity among Muslim countries….”

For details see Porte Robert La Jr. , Power and Privilege: Influence and Decision Making in Pakistan, New Delhi, 1976, p. 55.

Mohammed Munir , no. 60, pp. 21–90.

Anupam Sen xy0The Political Elites of Pakistan: Their Role in Pakistan's Disintegration”, Anupam Sen, ed., The Political Elites of Pakistan and other Sociological Essays, 1982, p. 89.

Cited in Kan Kagaya , “Changing Muslim View of Islamic History and Modernization—An Interpretation of Religion and Policies in Pakistan”, The Developing Economics, vol. 6, n. 2, 1968, p. 194.

Cited in Mohammed Munir , n. 60, p. 88.

Khan Mohammed Ayub , “Pakistan Perspective”, Foreign Affairs, New York, July 1966, p. 547.

Ibid, pp. 90-91.

Pirzada S.S. , n. 58, pp. 28–29.

Kheli S. Tahir , “In Search of An Identity: Islam and Pakistan's Foreign Policy”, in Added Diwesha, Islam in Foreign Policy, Cambridge, 1988, p. 74.

Op. cit. n. 107.

As cited in Som Anand, n. 72, p. 100.

Mohammed Munir , n. 60, p. 93. Also see The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan 1973, pp. 122-24.

Som Anand , n. 75., p. 100.

Riaz Hassan , “Islamization: An Analysis of Religious, Political and Social Change in Pakistan”, Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 21, no. 3, July 1985, p. 263.

Hayes Louis D. , “Islamization and Education in Pakistany”, Asia Pacifie Community, no. 23, Winter 1981, pp. 98–99.

Dawn, 4 march 1976.

For details sec Chopra Surendra , Post-Simla Indo-Pak Relations: From Confrontation to De-escalation, New Delhi, 1988, pp. 11–30. Zubeida Mustafa, “Recent Trends in Pakistan's Policy Towards the Middle East”, Pakistan Horizon, vol. 28, no. 4, 1975, pp. 1-19.

Samuel Baid , “How Islamic is Islamic Resurgence”, IDSA Journal, vol. 11, no. 4, 1979, p. 346.

Baluchistan Times, 26 January 1977.

Pakistan Times, 25 January 1977.

“A Great Manifesto”, Pakistan Times, 25 January 1977.

For details see Chopra Surendra , Post Simla Indo-Pak Relations: From Confrontation to De-escalation, New Delhi, 1988. n. 118, pp. 11–30.

Kheli Shirin Tahir , “In Search of an Identity: Islam and Pakistan's Foreign Policy”, in Adeed Diwesha, Islam in Foreign Policy”, Cambridge, 1988, pp. 72–73.

Baxter Craig , Malik Yogendra K. , Kennedy Charles H. , and Obert Robert C. , Government and Policies in South Asia, Westview, 1987, p. 383.

The Economist, 12 December 1981.

Tariq Ali , Can Pakistan Survive ? London, 1983, p. 159.

Lawrence Ziring , “Public Policy Dilemmas and Pakistan's Nationality Problem: The Legacy of Zia-ul-Haq”, Asian Survey, vol. 28. no. 6, August 1988, p. 797.

Ibid., p. 810.

Pakistan Times, 7 July 1977.

For details of Government's Islamization Programme, see Iqbal Javid , “Islamization in Pakistan”, Journal of South Asian and Middle Pastern Studies, vol 8, no. 3, 1985, pp. 35–52, Lucy Carool, “Nizam-i-Islam: Process of and Conflicts in Pakistan's Programme of Islamaziarion with special reference to the position of Women”, The Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Policies, vol. 20, no. 1, 1982, J. Henry Korson, “Islamization and Social Policy in Pakistan”, Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 6, no. 2, 1982.

Javid Iqbal , Ibid, p. 41.

Ibid.

Korson J. Henry , n. 129, p. 91.

This information was gathered during this author's visit to Pakistan in 1985.

“Address of the Pakistan President Gen. Zia on the introduction of Nizam-e-Islam in Pakistan, English rendering of the speech delivered in Urdu”, Pakistan Horizon, vol. 32, no. 2, 1979, pp. 283–92.

Dawn, 30 August, Also see Islamic University Ardinance 1980.

Andreas Uhlig , “The Islamization of Pakistan's Economy”, Swiss Review of World Affairs, vol. 29, no. 5, August 1979, pp. 12-13.

Khan Mohsin S. , and Mirakhar Abbas , “The Islamic Banking System in Iran and Pakistan”, The Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies, vol. 2, no. 3, 1986, p. 323.

Korson J. Henry , n. 91, p. 91. Also see, Jamil Rashid, “Economy under Marshal Law in Pakistan, Emphasis on Manpower Export”, Wolfgang Peter Zigel, et. al., eds., no. 60, pp. 238-56.

For detailed discussion of the process of Islamization in Pakistan see Ishaque Khalid M. , “The Islamic Approach to Economic Activity and Development”, Pakistan Economist, vol. 20, no. 26, 2-8 July 1980, pp. 16–17.

Pakistan Economist, vol. 20, no. 26, 2-8 July 1980, pp. 16–17. The Ushr tax according to the Shariat Is 10 per cent on barani lands and 5 per cent on land irrigated by well and canal water, see William L. Richter, “Pakistan”, in Mohammed Ayoob, ed., The Politics of Islamic Reassertion, New Delhi, 1982, p. 149.

For a highly critical evaluation of Zia's bogey see Haque Ziaul , n. 3 pp. 121–23. Also see Hasan Gardezi, el. al., eds., Pakistan: Unstable State, Lahore, 1983.

Khan Omar Asghar , “Political and Economic Aspects of Islamisation”, in Asghar Khan, n. 3, p. 127.

Mehrunisa Ali , “General Mohammed Zia-ul-Haq's visit to Muslim Countries”, Pakistan Horizon, vol. 30, no. 3 & 4, 1977, p. 103.

Down, 18 April 1978.

Ibid., 19 April 1978.

Ibid., 20 April 1978.

Ibid., 7 July 1978.

Ibid., 16 April 1979.

For details see Kaur Kulwant , Pak-Afghan Relations, New Delhi, 1985.

The Hindu, 7 February 1980.

New York Times, 11 December 1980.

Pirzada S.S. , n. 56, p. 31.

Ibid., p. 34.

Eqbal Ahmed , “Islam and Politics”, in Asghar Khan, n. 3, p. 25.

Ibid., n. 3. pp. 34–35.

Bangladesh Observer, 8 December 1983.

Pirzada S.S. , n. 56, pp. 32 and 35.

For full text of his speech, United Nations General Assembly A/35/PV 181, 10 October 1980.

Dawn, 18 January 1990.

Ms. Bhutto said this in an interview with DER SPIEGEL Pakistan Times, 13 April 1992.

See for details Kapur Ashok , Pakistan in Crisis, London, 1991, p. 216.

Awanhora Susumu , and Ali Salamat , “US Begins to Worry over Emerging Muslim Bloc: Fear of Islam”, Far Eastern Economic Review, 30 January 1992, p. 20.