Most African states are unfortunately prone to some level of “inherent” fragility, influenced by the level of government inclusiveness and legitimacy and the quality of the state’s main institutions. Inclusive political systems and/or a well-functioning democracy may lower inherent fragility. But democracy and political inclusiveness are no guarantee of state resilience; basic economic reforms and strong growth are not incompatible with state fragility. The deeply ingrained social and historical character of inherent fragility explains why moving out of fragility is so difficult. Institution-building during times of crisis—specific tensions, stresses, and shocks—is usually necessary to transition from fragility to resilience.
CooperF.(2002). Africa since the 1940: The past of the present. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
11.
DayakMano. (1992). Touareg, la tragédie. Paris, France: Lattès.
12.
Di JohnJonathan. (2010). The concept, causes and consequences of failed States: A critical review of the literature and agenda for research with specific reference to Sub-Saharan Africa. European Journal of Development Research, 22, 10–30.
13.
EllisS. (2009). West Africa International drug trade. African Affairs, 108, 171–196.
14.
FerryBenoit (Ed.) (2007). L’Afrique face a ses defis demographiques: un avenir incertain. Paris, France: AFD/Karthala.
15.
FromkinDavid. (1989). A peace to end all peace. New York: Henry Holts.
16.
GiriJacques. (1983). Le Sahel demain: Catastrophe ou renaissance. Paris, France: Karthala.
17.
GiriJacques. (1989). Le sahel au XXI ème siècle. Paris, France: Karthala.
18.
GnessotoNicoleGreviGiovanni. (2006). The New Global Puzzle: What World for the EU in 2025?Paris, France: EU Institute for Security Studies.
19.
GriffonMichel. (2010). Pour une agriculture écologiquement intensive. La Tour d’Aigues, France: Ed de l’Aube.
20.
GuillaumontPatrickJeanneneySylvianne Guillaumont. (2009, May). State fragility and economic vulnerability: What is measured and why? Policy paper prepared for the European Report on Development, Barcelona.
21.
HerbstJeffrey. (2000). States and power in Africa. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
22.
HochschildAdam. (1999). King Leopold’s ghost. Boston, MA: Mariner Books.
23.
HugonPhilippe. (2012). Geopolitique de l’Afrique. Paris: Farnce: CEDES.
24.
International and Development Studies (2009). Small arms survey 2009: Shadows of war. Geneva: Cambridge University Press.
25.
International Crisis Group. (2012, December). The Gulf of Guinea: The new danger zone. Dakar, Denegal: International Crisis Group.
26.
JacquemotPierre. (2013). Economie politique de l’afrique contemporaine. Armand Colin.
27.
LevyBrian. (2012). Getting to 2050: A long view of African Governance. Working paper. Washington DC: Centennial Group.
28.
LiptonMichael. (1977). Why poor people stay poor: Urban bias in world development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
29.
LoschBruno. (2012, October). Relever le défi de l’emploi: L’agriculture au Centre. CIRAD Policy Paper, Paris, France.
30.
MichailofSerge. (2005). Cote d’Ivoire 2005: Bienvenue sur le Titanic. Commentaires no. 110, Summer, 393–404.
31.
MichailofSerge. (2010a, October). The challenge of reconstructing failed states. A FACTs and FERDI Working Paper, http://www.ferdi.fr (last accessed on 14 December 2012).
32.
MichailofSerge. (2010b). NotreMaison Brûle au Sud. Paris, France: Fayard/Comentaires.
33.
MichailofSerge. (2011a). Are conflict prevention and nation building feasible goals?Monde-Cahiers du Quai d’Orsay, summer2011, 115–122.
34.
MichailofSerge. (2011b). Révolution verte et equilibres geostrategiques au Sahel. La revue Internationale et Stratégique, IRIS.
NgoupandeJean Paul. (1997). Chronique de la Crise Centre Africaine. Paris, France: L’Harmattan.
37.
NorthDouglass C. (1990). Institutions, institutional change and economic performance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
38.
NorthDouglass C.WallisJohn JosephWeingastBarry R. (2009). Violence and social orders. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
39.
PrunierGerard. (2009). Africa’s World Wars, Congo, the Rwandan genocide and the making of a catastrophe. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
40.
ReinhartCarmen M.RogoffKenneth S. (2009). This time is different, eight centuries of financial follies. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
41.
ShillingtonKevin. (1995). History of Africa. New York: St Martin Press.
42.
StearnsJason K. (2011). Dancing in the glory of monsters, the collapse of the Congo and the Great War in Africa. New York: Pubic Affairs.
43.
ThébaudBrigitte. (1988). Elevage et developpement au sahel, quel avenir pour les eleveurs?Geneva, Switzerland: BIT.
44.
TlemcaniSalima. (2010). Sahel: Vers l’Afghanisation de la region. El Watan. September20
45.
ToynbeeArnold. (1972). A Study of History. Oxford: Oxford University press.
46.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. (2011). World urbanization prospects: The 2010 revision. New York, NY: United Nations
47.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. (2012). World urbanization prospects: The 2011 revision. New York, NY: United Nations.
48.
Van CreveldMartin. (1991). The transformation of war. New York: Mac Millan.
49.
World Bank. (2008). World development report 2008: Agriculture for development. Washington, DC: World Bank.
50.
World Bank. (2011). World development report: Conflict, security, and development. Washington DC: World Bank.
51.
RotbergR. (2003). Failed states, collapsed states, weak states: Causes and indicators. In RotbergR. (Ed.), State Failure and State Weakness in a Time of Terror. Washington DC: Brookings.
