Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2023-8
‘From Plot to People’: A Photovoice Exploration of South Asian Farmer Livelihood Diversification Strategies When Extra Time and Money are Found Through Zero Tillage Adoption
Impact evaluations are dominated by the application of development economics to assess the direct impacts of change at the plot level, while studies that focus on the impact of such plot-level changes on livelihoods remain rare. This raises questions about the ‘so-what’ of the adoption of labour and money-saving practices such as Zero Tillage to the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Piloting a qualitative photovoice methodology with 25 South Asian households, the priorities and strategies of resource-poor South Asian smallholder farmers are explored when they have freed time and financial resources available. Various activities related to agricultural and livelihood diversification are linked by informants to broader impacts on their resilience, life satisfaction and broader livelihood outcomes. Despite being a pilot qualitative study, results indicate that cereal system intensification may be synergistic and not antagonistic to crop and livelihood diversification, especially if framed in whole-of-livelihood-focused initiatives that look for opportunities to utilize saved resources. Likewise, the value of humanizing research through qualitative participatory methods that centre ‘people rather than plots’ is highlighted through the broad linkages that informants identified from their diverse livelihood strategies.
AndersonC. L., ReynoldsT. W., BiscayeP., PatwardhanV., & SchmidtC. (2021). Economic benefits of empowering women in agriculture: Assumptions and evidence. The Journal of Development Studies, 57(2), 193–208. 10.1080/00220388.2020.1769071
2.
BellR. W., HaqueMd. E., JahiruddinM., & RahmanMd., M. (2019). Conservation agriculture for rice-based intensive cropping by smallholders in the eastern gangetic plain. Agriculture, 9(1). 10.3390/agriculture9010005
3.
BrownB., KarkiE., SharmaA., SuriB., & ChaudharyA. (2021a). Herbicides and Zero Tillage in South Asia: Are we creating a gendered problem?Outlook on Agriculture [Preprint]. 10.1177/00307270211013823
4.
BrownB., SamaddarA., SinghK., LeipzigA., KumarA., KumarP., SinghD. K., MalikR., CraufurdP., KumarV., & McDonaldA. (2021b). Understanding decision processes in becoming a fee-for-hire service provider: A case study on direct seeded rice in Bihar, India. Journal of Rural Studies, 87, 254–266. 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2021.09.025
5.
BrownB., LlewellynR., & NubergI. (2018). Global learnings to inform the local adaptation of conservation agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa. Global Food Security, 213–220. 10.1016/j.gfs.2017.10.002
6.
BrownB., NubergI., & LlewellynR. (2020). From interest to implementation: Exploring farmer progression of conservation agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 22(4), 3159–3177. 10.1007/s10668-019-00340-5
7.
BrownB., PaudelG. P., & KrupnikT. J. (2021c). Visualising adoption processes through a stepwise framework: A case study of mechanisation on the Nepal Terai. Agricultural Systems, 192, 103200. 10.1016/j.agsy.2021.103200
8.
ChambersR., & ConwayG. R. (1991). Sustainable rural livelihoods: Practical concepts for the 21st century. IWMI Books. International Water Management Institute.
9.
ChaudharyA., TimsinaP., SuriB., KarkiE., SharmaA., SharmaR., & BrownB. (2022). Experiences with conservation agriculture in the Eastern Gangetic Plains: Farmer benefits, challenges, and strategies that frame the next steps for wider adoption. Frontiers in Agronomy, 3. 10.3389/fagro.2021.787896
10.
ErensteinO., FarooqU., MalikR. K., & SharifM. (2008). On-farm impacts of zero tillage wheat in South Asia’s rice-wheat systems. Field Crops Research, 105(3), 240–252. 10.1016/j.fcr.2007.10.010
11.
FarnworthC. R., BaudronF., AnderssonJ. A., MisikoM., BadstueL., & StirlingC. M. (2016). Gender and conservation agriculture in East and Southern Africa: Towards a research agenda. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 14(2), 142–165. 10.1080/14735903.2015.1065602
12.
FaulknerE. (1943). Plowman’s folly. No. 5. LWW.
13.
Foster-FishmanP., NowellB., DeaconZ., NievarM. A., & McCannP. (2005). Using methods that matter: The impact of reflection, dialogue, and voice. American Journal of Community Psychology, 36(3–4), 275–291. 10.1007/s10464-005-8626-y
14.
GathalaM. K., LaingA., TiwariT. P., TimsinaJ., Rola-RubzenM. F., IslamMd. S., MaharjanS., BrownP., DasK. K., PradhanK., ChowdhuryA. K., KumarR., DattR., AnwarM., HossainS., KumarU., AdhikariS. P., MagarD. B. T., Sapkota,…GerardB. (2021). Improving smallholder farmers’ gross margins and labour-use efficiency across a range of cropping systems in the Eastern Gangetic Plains. World Development, 138, 105266. 10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105266
15.
GautamY., & AndersenP. (2016). Rural livelihood diversification and household well-being: Insights from Humla, Nepal. Journal of Rural Studies, 44, 239–249. 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.02.001
16.
GillerK. E., WitterE., CorbeelsM., & TittonellP. (2009). Conservation agriculture and smallholder farming in Africa: The heretics’ view. Field Crops Research, 114(1), 23–34. 10.1016/j.fcr.2009.06.017
17.
GillerK. E., AnderssonJ. A., CorbeelsM., KirkegaardJ., MortensenD., ErensteinO., & VanlauweB. (2015). Beyond conservation agriculture. Frontiers in Plant Science, 6. 10.3389/fpls.2015.00870
18.
GoldM. V., & GatesJ. P. (2017). Tracing the evolution of organic/sustainable agriculture: A selected and annotated Bibliography. Sustainable Development of Organic Agriculture, 6(1 SPL), 185–292. 10.1201/9781315365800-12
19.
HobbsP., GuptaR., JatR. K., & MalikR. K. (2019). Conservation agriculture in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India: Past, present and future. Experimental Agriculture, 55(2), 339–357. 10.1017/S0014479717000424
20.
IslamS., GathalaM. K., TiwariT. P., TimsinaJ., LaingA. M., MaharjanS., ChowdhuryA. K., BhattacharyaP. M., DharT., MitraB., KumarS., SrivastwaP. K., DuttaS. K., ShresthaR., ManandharS., SheresthaS. R., PaneruP., Nur-E-AlamSiddquie, Hossain, A., … GerardB. (2019). Conservation agriculture based sustainable intensification: Increasing yields and water productivity for smallholders of the Eastern Gangetic Plains. Field Crops Research, 238, 1–17. 10.1016/j.fcr.2019.04.005
21.
KarkiE., SharmaA., & BrownB. (2021). Farm mechanization in Nepal: Policy context, drivers and options. Journal of International Development, 34(2), 287–305.
22.
KeilA., D’souzaA., & McDonaldA. (2015). Zero-tillage as a pathway for sustainable wheat intensification in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains: Does it work in farmers’ fields?Food Security, 7(5), 983–1001. 10.1007/s12571-015-0492-3
23.
KeilA., D’souzaA., & McDonaldA. (2017). Zero-tillage is a proven technology for sustainable wheat intensification in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains: What determines farmer awareness and adoption?Food Security, 9(4), 723–743. 10.1007/s12571-017-0707-x
24.
LevineS. (2014). How to study livelihoods: Bringing a sustainable livelihoods framework to life (Working paper 22). London, UK.
25.
ParisT. R., & ChiT. T. N. (2005). The impact of row seeder technology on women labor: A case study in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Gender, Technology and Development, 9(2), 157–187. 10.1177/097185240500900201
26.
PingaliP. (2015). Agricultural policy and nutrition outcomes – getting beyond the preoccupation with staple grains. Food Security, 7(3), 583–591. 10.1007/s12571-015-0461-x
27.
PokhrelA., & SoniP. (2018). An investigation into a resource and environmentally sustainable system: Zero-tillage lentil and garlic production in Nepal. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 42(9), 982–1002. 10.1080/21683565.2018.1487359
28.
Rola-RubzenM. F., ParisT., HawkinsJ., & SapkotaB. (2020). Improving gender participation in agricultural technology adoption in Asia: From rhetoric to practical action. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 42(1), 113–125. 10.1002/aepp.13011
29.
ScoonesI. (2009). Livelihoods perspectives and rural development. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 36(1), 171–196. 10.1080/03066150902820503
30.
Sutton-BrownC. A. (2014). Photovoice: A methodological guide. Photography and Culture, 7(2), 169–185. 10.2752/175145214X13999922103165
31.
WangC., & BurrisM. A. (1997). Photovoice: Concept, methodology, and use for participatory needs assessment. Health Education and Behavior, 24(3), 369–387. 10.1177/109019819702400309
32.
WhiteH., & MassetE. (2018). The rise of impact evaluations and challenges which CEDIL is to address. Journal of Development Effectiveness, 10(4), 393–399. 10.1080/19439342.2018.1539387
33.
ZugS. (2008). The impact of agricultural mechanisation on poverty alleviation in a seasonal environment: A project evaluation from northern Bangladesh. Bochum.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
