A Neuropsychological Perspective on ADHD: Quantitative Insights into Working Memory Components

Abstract

Background

One of the primary cognitive impairments in people with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is working memory difficulties. This study investigates the connection between teenage ADHD symptom subtypes and working memory components, including verbal, visuospatial and central executive.

Purpose

To examine how specific working memory subcomponents predict ADHD symptoms (inattention and learning problems), and to investigate potential gender differences in working memory performance among adolescents with ADHD.

Methods

Fifty children and adolescents (8–16.4 years old) with a clinical diagnosis of ADHD who were receiving treatment and medication in a hospital in Delhi-NCR were assessed. Parents completed the Conners 3 Parent Rating Scale, and adolescents were administered the Digit Span and Letter-Number Sequencing subtests from the WISC-IV and the Bender-Gestalt Test. Statistical analyses included Pearson’s correlation, Mann–Whitney U test.

Results

Learning problems and inattention as components were negatively associated with working memory. The visuospatial component assessed by the Bender–Gestalt Test had no significant correlation with ADHD components. No significant gender differences in working memory performance were observed.

Conclusion

These findings highlight the importance of targeted cognitive interventions for both genders, emphasising working memory enhancement to reduce ADHD-related impairments. Future studies should use larger and more diverse sample sizes and examine working memory in relation to ADHD severity and comorbid conditions.

Keywords

ADHD working memory executive functions inattention learning problems adolescent

Background

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common mental health disorder in childhood, and primary care professionals play an important role in caring for children with ADHD.¹ ADHD is most accurately viewed as the end of a spectrum, where individuals with ADHD differ from those without it mainly in terms of degree, rather than in fundamental nature. Adolescents with ADHD frequently appear emotionally immature when compared to their age-matched classmates. Adolescents and children with ADHD often exhibit inappropriate affect, both negative and positive.² Symptoms include being easily frustrated and having a ‘short fuse’, which results in abrupt outbursts of anger.³

Children who exhibit hyperactive and impulsive behaviours more often than those predominantly experiencing inattention are more likely to seek clinical therapy early.⁴ Additionally, research has demonstrated that children do not outgrow ADHD and that a sizeable portion of them struggle with it until their late adolescent years.⁵ In the extreme, the symptoms correspond to co-occurring oppositional defiant disorder. Cognitive deficits become more problematic during adolescence. Between 25% and 75% of adolescents with ADHD fulfil diagnostic criteria for oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder.⁶

Based on differential elevations across two dimensions of symptoms related to inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity, the DSM-IV identified three nominal subgroups of ADHD. The predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type (ADHD-H) characterises maladaptive levels of hyperactivity-impulsivity, and not inattention; the predominantly inattentive type (ADHD-I) describes individuals with maladaptive levels of inattention, and not hyperactivity-impulsivity; and the combined type (ADHD-C) describes individuals with significant symptoms of both inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity, validated by a comprehensive literature review and meta-analysis of 546 studies.⁷

Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder also struggle to socialise with their peers, increasing their chances of being victims of school violence, creating another chronic issue of low self-esteem.⁸ Serious social, academic, and psychological issues, challenges in the family resulting from parental intolerance, and traumatic life experiences are all potential sources of low self-esteem⁹ and quality of life in adolescents with ADHD. They perceive less emotional support and higher levels of intrusiveness, with patients also describing their families as more irritating.¹⁰

ADHD & Working Memory

ADHD may last throughout the adolescent phase. Specific inattentive symptoms, specific psychiatric comorbidities, and a family history of attention problems (especially among fathers) all raise the risk of developing persistent ADHD.¹¹ Deficiencies in domain-general central executive working memory, rather than specific subcomponents, predicted ADHD severity, showing that common rather than specialised working memory mechanisms may be important for understanding ADHD symptoms.¹² These impairment estimates add to earlier research by providing preliminary evidence that children with ADHD have different profiles across cognitive domains, as well as significant variance within subcomponents of critical cognitive processes.¹³

Research has shown that Cognitive Working Memory Training (CWMT) is effective in enhancing working memory in young people with ADHD.^{14, 15} These improvements have lasted up to two months¹⁶ and are even longer. According to assessments based on blinded measures, cognitive training (including CWMT) has very restrained effects specifically on core ADHD symptoms.¹⁷ However, according to two recent meta-analyses reports, Cognitive Training produces moderate gains in working memory when outcome measures align with the trained task.¹⁸ This suggests that symptoms and cognitive functioning are not directly related, and CWMT positively impacts various components of working memory, including the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive. It can significantly enhance working memory performance while alleviating symptoms.¹⁸

The previous findings revealed that verbal and visuospatial short-term memory, as well as verbal central executive function, were unique contributors to symptoms of inattention. Age interacted with linguistic short-term memory to predict inattention, with older children showing a higher correlation.¹⁹ These findings lend support to the idea that ADHD is a developmental illness characterised by variations in related cognitive impairments across time. The findings also show ADHD-related abnormalities in numerous key working memory components.²⁰

Current Study

Working memory performance is critical for maintaining cognitive, intellectual, and social functions. Previous studies show that working memory problems are common in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.²¹ Despite the recognised impact of working memory deficits in adults with ADHD, research analysing these deficits in adolescents with ADHD, particularly across different subtypes, remains limited.²² Adolescence is marked by a desire for increased independence and individuation from family, making it crucial to understand this population’s distinct working memory components rather than primarily focusing on parent-centred interventions. This perspective highlights the importance of incorporating cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) that actively engages adolescents in treatment, with an understanding of the association between the working memory component and ADHD subtypes as a crucial initial step. The main research question of the current study, being quantitative, was to examine the association between working memory components and ADHD subtypes. Additionally, the study measured gender differences in ADHD subtypes and working memory components, and the impact of ADHD subtypes as a criterion with working memory as a predictor, represented in a model form.

Methods

Participants

The study included 50 adolescents (34 males and 16 females) who met the diagnostic criteria of ADHD according to DSM-5, recruited through purposive sampling from a hospital in Delhi-NCR. According to studies, ADHD is more prevalent in boys (13.2%) than in girls (5.6%), which may explain the study’s demographic discrepancy.²³ Participants were required to be between 8 and 16.4 years of age and have a clinical diagnosis of ADHD for a minimum duration of two years. Additional inclusion criteria included the ability to comprehend English and voluntary participation in the study. While individuals with comorbid anxiety disorders were included, those with mood disorders, learning disabilities, behavioural disorders, or below-average intellectual functioning were excluded.

Measures

The Conners 3rd Edition-Parent Short Form [Conners 3-P(S)] is a 43-item assessment tool created to collect parental observations concerning their child’s behaviour. This test is intended to assess ADHD and its most prevalent comorbidities in children and adolescents aged 6–18 years.²⁴ The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – fourth edition²⁵ measures the intellectual ability of children aged 6–16.11 years.

In addition to measures of intellectual functioning in Verbal Comprehension (VC), Perceptual Reasoning (PR), Working Memory (WM), and Processing Speed (PS), it was created to offer an overall evaluation of general cognitive capacity. Letter-Number Sequencing and Digit Span are the two main subtests for WM. The Bender–Gestalt Test (BGT) is frequently used for neuropsychological examination, which assesses visual-motor coordination in children and adults.²⁶ This test consists of nine cards featuring geometric images, each with one image. The cards are presented to the subjects one at a time, and they are instructed to sketch each figure on a white sheet of paper using a pencil.

Procedure

Before the initiation of the research, ethical approval was obtained from the ethical committee. Informed consent was obtained from the parents, and the parents were fully briefed about the purpose and procedures before proceeding with the study. They were requested to provide demographic details, including their child’s age, gender, and date of birth. As part of the assessment process, parents completed the Conners 3 Parent Rating Scale.²⁴ The Digit Span and Letter-Number Sequencing subtests from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fourth Edition²⁵ were used to evaluate verbal working memory components for each adolescent participant on an individual basis. Additionally, visuospatial functioning was assessed using the BGT.²⁶

Statistical Procedures

Data was analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).²⁷ Pearson’s correlation was conducted to examine the associations between ADHD components and various aspects of working memory, including visuospatial memory. Additionally, the Mann–Whitney U test was applied to compare gender differences in working memory among participants with ADHD, addressing the study’s second hypothesis.

Results

Pearson correlations were used to examine the relationships between ADHD components and working memory subtypes in Table 1. Inattention negatively correlates with working memory (ρ = −0.346, p = .014). Learning problems negatively correlate with working memory (ρ = −0.384, p = .006). BGT has no significant correlation with ADHD components.

Table 1.

Correlation of ADHD Components with Working Memory and Visuospatial Memory.

		Working Memory	Bender–Gestalt Test
Inattention	Pearson correlation	−0.346*	−0.080
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.014	0.583
	N	50	50
Hyperactivity	Pearson correlation	−0.216	−0.103
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.131	0.477
	N	50	50
Learning problems	Pearson correlation	−0.384*	−0.136
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.006	0.346
	N	50	50
Aggression	Pearson correlation	−0.062	0.194
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.669	0.178
	N	50	50
Perceptual reasoning	Pearson correlation	0.119	−0.205
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.412	0.153
	N	50	50
Executive functioning	Pearson correlation	−0.056	0.144
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.698	0.320
	N	50	50

Source: Extracted using SPSS.

Notes: * at the 0.05 level (two-tailed).

Table 2 illustrates the gender differences in working memory among children with ADHD, based on the Mann–Whitney U test. The results revealed no statistically significant difference in working memory scores between males and females (U = 252.50, Z = −0.41, p = .684). Similar non-significant findings were observed for other ADHD-related variables, including inattention (U = 254.50, Z = −0.37, p = .715), hyperactivity (U = 260.50, Z = −0.24, p = .810), and learning problems (U = 219.00, Z = −1.10, p = .270). These results suggest that gender does not significantly influence the relationship between ADHD symptoms and cognitive functions such as working memory.

Table 2.

Comparison of Gender Based on ADHD Components and Working Memory Subtypes.

	Inattention	Hyperactivity	Learning Problems	Aggression	Perceptual Reasoning	Executive Functioning	Working Memory	Bender–Gestalt Test
Mann–Whitney U	254.500	260.500	219.000	205.500	237.000	220.000	252.500	222.500
Wilcoxon W	849.500	396.500	814.000	800.500	373.000	815.000	388.500	817.500
Z	−0.365	−0.240	−1.103	−1.389	−0.743	−1.082	−0.407	−1.031
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)	0.715	0.810	0.270	0.165	0.458	0.279	0.684	0.303

Source: Extracted using SPSS.

Discussion

The aim of this study was to assess the correlation between working memory components with ADHD subtypes. Despite the recognised impact of working memory deficits in adults with ADHD, research analysing these deficits in adolescents with ADHD, particularly across different subtypes, remains limited.²³ The current research demonstrates the relationship between components of working memory and ADHD subtypes in children and adolescents. Data were collected from the parents of 50 participants diagnosed with ADHD, all of whom were undergoing therapy and receiving medication as part of their treatment. Parents completed the Conners 3 Parent Rating Scale,²⁴ while the children and adolescents were individually assessed using subtests from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fourth Edition. Specifically, the forward Digit Span and Letter-Number Sequencing subtests were used to evaluate the phonological loop, while the backwards digit span assessed the central executive component of working memory, and the BGT²⁶ assessed visuospatial functioning.

To understand the correlation between ADHD components and working memory subtypes, Conners 3 Parent,²⁴ WISC-IV,²⁵ and the BGT,²⁶ were assessed together. By aligning the current research outcomes with previous studies, it was inferred that higher levels of inattention symptoms were significantly associated with poorer functioning of verbal and visuospatial STM components (i.e., the entire working memory variance). Hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms were significantly associated with poorer functioning of verbal working memory and the verbal short-term memory component.²⁸ Findings suggest that the learning problems and inattention as components were negatively associated with working memory. The visuospatial component assessed by BGT had no significant correlation with ADHD components.

While previous research has consistently identified working memory deficits as a core cognitive impairment in individuals with ADHD,²⁹ current findings regarding working memory performance among children diagnosed with ADHD show insignificant gender differences. This aligns with previous studies indicating that although boys and girls may exhibit different behaviours associated with ADHD, such as higher rates of hyperactivity in boys and increased inattention in girls, the underlying cognitive impairments, including working memory deficits, may be similar across genders.³⁰ However, other research has suggested that girls with ADHD may experience more significant deficits in certain executive functions, such as response inhibition and cognitive control, particularly as they move into adolescence.³¹ Differences across studies in methodologies, such as variations in sample size, the use of assessment tools and inconsistent controls for gender effects, can contribute to divergent findings on whether working memory performance differs by gender in children with ADHD.

The absence of significant gender differences in our study underscores the necessity for tailored assessment and intervention strategies that tackle the specific cognitive challenges encountered by each child with ADHD, irrespective of gender. Interventions targeting working memory deficits should be considered for both boys and girls, as both groups can benefit from cognitive training programmes and academic accommodations designed to alleviate difficulties associated with working memory. Previous studies observed that CWMT is an appropriate therapeutic strategy to improve working memory capacity. The combination of interventions (CWMT and medication) showed positive effects on working memory functioning.¹⁹ It is important to recognise that the absence of significant findings in this study does not rule out the possibility of subtle gender differences in cognitive functioning among children with ADHD. Future studies with larger, more diverse samples and longitudinal designs may provide valuable insights into how gender influences the development and expression of cognitive deficits in ADHD.

These findings highlight the cognitive underpinnings of ADHD symptoms and align with the theoretical proposition that executive dysfunction, particularly working memory, is a central component of the disorder. The model demonstrates working memory’s predictive value and supports the importance of incorporating cognitive-based interventions into treatment strategies. Enhancing working memory capacity may help reduce behavioural symptoms and improve academic performance and daily functioning among children and adolescents with ADHD.

These findings align with the dual-pathway model of ADHD,³² which posits that the disorder emerges from two partially distinct mechanisms: one involving executive function deficits, such as impairments in working memory, and the other related to altered reward processing and motivational regulation. In the present study, the executive functioning pathway demonstrated a significant predictive role in ADHD symptomatology, underscoring the importance of targeting cognitive deficits within comprehensive intervention frameworks. This adds empirical weight to neurodevelopmental models that conceptualise ADHD as a heterogeneous condition with multiple interacting etiological pathways. Moreover, evidence indicating that deficits in domain-general central executive working memory, rather than isolated subcomponents, are more strongly associated with ADHD severity³³ further supports the development of broad-based cognitive interventions for enhancing executive control.

Conclusion

The study contributes to the growing body of evidence emphasising the centrality of working memory deficits in the cognitive and behavioural profile of adolescents with ADHD. These findings not only validate theoretical frameworks such as the dual-pathway model of ADHD but also emphasise the need for personalised cognitive assessments and targeted interventions that address specific executive functioning deficits. The study reinforces the necessity for interventions focused on cognitive processes, particularly those aimed at enhancing working memory capacity, which may, therefore, reduce behavioural symptoms and improve academic functioning. Given the nuanced nature of ADHD and its presentation across developmental stages and individual profiles, future research should employ longitudinal and neurobiological methods to further unravel the complex interaction between working memory systems and symptom expression, ultimately guiding more effective, evidence-based treatment approaches.

Limitations

Despite the insightful information this study provided, a number of limitations must be noted. First off, a small sample size and an uneven gender distribution limited the study of gender differences in working memory among teenagers with ADHD. This disparity restricts how broadly the results about gender-specific cognitive characteristics may be applied. Second, although data collection was conducted at a highly reputed hospital, the sample was limited to one institution. This geographic curb may reduce the representativeness of the findings across broader and more diverse populations. Third, while participants with comorbid anxiety disorders were included, the study did not account for the potential influence of other common comorbidities such as mood disorders, learning disabilities, and behavioural disorders. And finally, individuals with below-average intellectual functioning were excluded, potentially narrowing the applicability of the results to only a subset of the ADHD population.

Footnotes

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to Dr Roma Kumar (RCI No A23920) for her professional support and for granting permission to conduct this research within her clinical setting. Her cooperation was essential in facilitating participant recruitment and ensuring the ethical conduct of the study. We are also deeply appreciative of the adolescents who participated in this research and their parents for their trust, time, and willingness to contribute. Their participation and support were invaluable to the successful completion of this study.

Authors’ Contribution

Priyanka Malhotra: Contributed to conception, design, acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data, drafted the manuscript; critically revised the manuscript.

Rati Khurana: Contributed to conception and design, analysis and interpretation of data, critically revised the manuscript and gave final approval.

All authors agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work, ensuring integrity and accuracy.

Statement of Ethics

An ethical approval letter was obtained from the university before the initiation of the research. The study was conducted under the supervision and approval of a licensed clinical psychologist from the institution where data collection took place. All necessary ethical protocols were followed, and the study was carried out in accordance with the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki.

Declaration of Conflict of Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The data file has been attached as a supplementary file.

Patient Consent

Prior to the commencement of the study, the research was clearly explained to both the participants and their parents. Informed consent was obtained from the supervising clinical psychologist (Dr Roma Kumar, RCI No A23920), and as the participants were minors, assent was secured verbally from them and in writing from their guardians. Participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any point without consequences, and confidentiality and anonymity were assured throughout the research process.

ORCID iDs

Priyanka Malhotra

Rati Khurana

Supplementary Material

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Supplementary Material

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