The present discussion aims at the exposition of the nature as well as the communicative insights of the Pleistocene stone artifacts reported so far from different Paleolithic sites in Manipur, at two levels; first, an assessment of the intelligence level of the authors who made these lithic artifacts is attempted by employing Piagetian theory of genetic epistemology; and secondly, a simple endeavor to surmise the reduction strategies of the Paleolithic artifacts. It is likely that the authors of the Paleolithic core tools (especially bifacial/s) in Manipur applied both the pre-operational means of organization and operational spatial organization in making the tools. The Mode 1 to 4 technologies in all the Paleolithic assemblages are relatively simple and characterized by the less-refined form of core and flake (including blade) reduction technologies, geared towards attaining greater control over either the debitage or faconnage operational systems.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AmbroseS. H.2001. Paleolithic technology and human evolution.Science (N.S.), 291 (5509): 1748–1753.
2.
Bar-YosefO.1994. The Lower Paleolithic of the Near East.Journal of the World Prehistory.8(3): 211–265.
3.
Bar-YosefO.1998. Early colonizations and cultural continuities in the Lower Paleolithic of Western Asia. In, PetragliaM.D. and KorisetterR. (eds.) Early Human behaviour of the Lower Palaeolithic record. Pp. 221–279. New York: Routledge.
4.
BartonC.M.1988. ‘Lithic Variability and Middle Paleolithic Behavior: New Evidence from the Iberian Peninsula’. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
5.
BellwoodP.1994. Southeast Asia before history. In, TarlingN. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Vol. I, Pp. 55–136. New York: Cambridge University Press.
BerryL. G. and MasonB.1959. Minerology: concepts, descriptions, determinations.San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.
8.
BhattacharyaD.K.1979. Old Stone Age Tools (A manual of Laboratory techniques of analysis)Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co.
9.
BoedaE.1986. Approche technolgique du concept levallois et évaluation de son champs d'Applicatioñ: tude de trios gisements saaliens et weichseliens de la France septentrionale. Doctoral dissertation, University of Paris X.
10.
BordesF.1961. Typologie du paléolithique ancient et moyen.Publications de 1'Institut de Préhistoire de l'Université de Bordeaux, Mémoire 1, Bordeaux.
11.
BordesF. and de Sonneville-BordesD.. 1970. The Significance of variability in Palaeolithic Assemblages.World Archaeology2: 61–73.
12.
BradleyB.1977. Experimental Lithic Technology with Special Reference to the Middle Paleolithic. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cambridge.
13.
BrocaP.1870. L'art de faire le variation in Levallois flake manufacture.Current Anthropology, 26(3): 391–393.
14.
ChardC. S.1975. Man in Prehistory (second edition). New York: McGraw Hill Book Company.
15.
ShenChen and QiW.2004. Lithic technological variability of the Middle Pleistocene in Eastern Nihewan Basin, Northern China.Asian Perspectives, 43(2): 281–300.
ClarksonC.J.2002a. Holocene scraper reduction, technological organization and land use at Ingaladdi Rockshelter, Northern Australia, Archaeology in Oceania, 37: 79–86.
21.
ClarksonC.J.2002b. An index of invasiveness for the measurement of unifacial and bifacial retouch: a theoretical, experimental and archaeological verification.Journal of Archaeological Science.29: 65–75.
22.
CrabtreeD.1966. A stone-worker's approach to analyzing and replicating the Lindenmeier Folsom.Tebiwa9(1): 3–39.
23.
CrabtreeD.1968. Mesoamerican polyhedral cores and prismatic blades.American Antiquity33: 446–78.
24.
CushingF.1895. The Arrow.American Anthropologist8(4): 307–349.
25.
De LumleyH.; NioradzeM.; BarskyD.; CaucheD.; CeliberteV.; NioradzeG.; NotterO.; ZvaniaD.; and LordkipanidzeD.2005. Les industries lithiques pre oldowayennes du debut du Pleistocene inferieur du site de Dmanissi en Georgia.L'Anthrpologie, 109(1): 1–182.
26.
De LumleyM-A; GaouniaL.; VekuaA.; and LordkipanidzeD.2006. Les reste humains du Pliocene final et du debut du Pleistocene inferieur de Dmanissi, Georgia.L'Anthrpologie.110(1): 1–110.
27.
DibbleH.1987. ‘Reduction sequences in the manufacture of Mousterian implements of France'. In, SofferO. (Ed.) The Pleistocene Old World Regional Perspectives. Pp. 33–45. New York: Plenum Press.
28.
DibbleH.1988. ‘Typological aspects of reduction and intensity of utilization of lithic resources in the French Mousterian’. In, DibbleH. and Montet-WhiteA. (Eds.) Upper Pleistocene Prehistory of Western Eurasia. Pp. 181–198. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
29.
DibbleH.1995. Middle Paleolithic scraper reduction: background, clarification, and review of evidence to date.Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 2: 299–368.
30.
DibbleH and PelcinA.1995. The Effect of Hammer Mass and Velocity on Flake Mass.Journal of Archaeological Science22: 429–439.
31.
EiseleyL1954. Man the fire-maker.Scientific American, 191(3): 52–57.
32.
EvansJ.1872. The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain.London: Longmans.
33.
FlennikenJ.J.1984. The Past, Present and Future of Flintknapping: An Anhropological Perspective.Ann. Rev. Anthropolo., 13: 187–203.
34.
GenesteJ.1985. Analyse lithique d'industries moustériennes du Périgord: une approche technologique du comportement des groups humains au paléolithique moyen. Doctoral dissertation, University of Bordeaux I.
35.
GibsonK.1991. Tools, language and intelligence: evolutionary implications.Man (N.S.), 26(2): 255–264.
36.
GoodmanM. E.1944. The physical properties of stone tool materials.American Antiquity.9: 415–433.
37.
GordonD.1993. Mousterian tool selection, reduction, and discard at Ghar, Israel.Journal of Field Archaeology, 20: 205–218.
38.
Goren-InbarN. et.al., 2004. Evidence of Hominin control of fire at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel.Science, 304(5671): 725–727.
39.
GowlettJ.A.J.; HarrisW.K.; WaltonD.; and WoodB.A.. 1981. Early archaeological sites, hominid remains, and traces of fire from Chesowanja, Kenya.Nature, 294: 125–129.
40.
HarrisonH.S.1954. ‘Fire-making, fuel, and lightning’. In, SingerC; HolmyardE.J. and HallA.R. (eds.) A History of Technology. Pp. 216–237. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
41.
HaydenB.1981. Research and development in the Stone Age: technological transitions among hunter-gatherers.Current Anthropology, 22: 519–548.
42.
HiscockP.1988. A cache of tulas from the Boulia District of Western Queensland.Archaeology in Oceania, 23: 60–70.
43.
HiscockP.1994. ‘The end of points’ In, SullivanM., BrockwellS., and WebbA. (Eds.) Archaeology in the North. Pp.72–83. North Australia Research Unit, Australian National University.
44.
HiscockP.1996. Transformations of Upper Palaeolithic implements in the Dabba industry from Haua Fteah (Libya).Antiquity, 70: 70–657.
45.
HiscockP. and ClarksonC.2005. Experimental evaluation of Kuhn's geometric index of reduction and the flat-flake problem.Journal of Archaeological Science, 32: 1015–1022.
46.
HiscockP. and ClarksonC.2007. Retouched Notches at Combe Grenal (France) and the Reduction Hypothesis.American Antiquity, 72(1): 176–190.
47.
HiscockP. and AttenbrowV.2003. Morphological and reduction continuums in eastern Australia: Measurement and implications at Capertee 3.Tempus, 7:167–174.
48.
HoldawayS., McPherronS., and RothB.1996. Notched tool reuse and raw material availability in French Middle Paleolithic sites.American Antiquity, 61: 61–377.
49.
HolmesW.1891. Manufacture of Stone Arrow-points.American Anthropologist4: 49–58.
50.
IsaacG.1989. ‘Early phases of human behavior models in Lower Paleolithic archaeology’. In, IsaacBarbara (ed.) Archaeology of Human Origins. Pp. 13–36. New York: Cambridge University Press.
51.
JamesS.R.1989. Hominid use of fire in the Lower and Middle Pleistocene: a review of the evidence, Current Anthropology, 30: 1–26.
52.
KobayashiH.1975. ‘The experimental study of bipolar flakes’. In, SwansonE. (ed.) Lithic Technology: Making and Using Stone Tools. Pp.115–127. The Hague: Mouton Publishers.
53.
KooymanB. P.2000. Understanding Stone Tools and Archaeological Sites.London: University of Calgary Press.
54.
KuhnSteven L.1990A Geometric Index of Reduction for Unifacial Stone Tools.Journal of Archaeological Science17:583–593.
55.
KuhnS.L.1995. Mousterian Lithic Technology, Princeton : Princeton University Press.
ManiBabuM.1995. Early Hominids in Manipur: Characterization of intelligence.Journal of the Anthropological Society of Manipur, II: 61–73
58.
ManiBabuM.2009. Hoabinhian and Edge-Ground tools of early post-Pleistocene times: Southeast Asia Lithic Technology.South Asian Anthropologist9(1): 87–96.
59.
NeeleyM.P. and BartonC.M.1994. A new approach to interpreting late Pleistocene microlith industries in southwest Asia.Antiquity, 68: 275–288.
60.
NelsonM.C.1991. The study of technological organization. In, SchifferM.B. (ed.) Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol. 3. Pp.55–100. Tucsa: University of Arizona Press.
61.
OakleyK.P.1955. Fire as Paleolithic tool and weapon.Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society.21: 36–48.
62.
OakleyK.P.1972. Man the Tool-maker. (sixth edition). London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History).
63.
OdellG.H.1989. ‘Experiments in lithic reduction’. In, AmickD.S. and MauldinR.P. (Eds.) Experiments in Lithic Technology. Pp. 163–198. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
64.
PelcinA.1997. The Effect of Core Surface Morphology on Flake Attributes: Evidence from a Controlled Experiment.Journal of Archaeological Science24: 749–756.
PiagetJ.1971. Psychology and Epistemology (trans.) A. Rosin. New York : Viking Fund.
67.
PiagetJ.1972The Principle of Genetic Epistemology (trans. W. Mays). London: Kegan Paul.
68.
PiagetJ. and InhelderB.1967. The Child's conception of space (trans.). LanglonF and LunzerJ.New York: Nortn.
69.
SankaliaH.D.1964. Stone Age Tools: Their Techniques and Probable Functions.Poona: Deccan College.
70.
ShottM.J.; BradburyA.P.; CarrP.J.; and OdellH.O.2000. Flake size from platform attributes: predictive and empirical approaches.Journal of Archaeological Science, 27: 27–877.
71.
SinghO.K.1997. Stone Age Archaeology of Manipur.Imphal.
72.
SinghO.K.1993. Stone Age Cultures of Manipur. Ph.D. thesis (unpublished). Manipur University, Imphal.
73.
SinghO. K. and SinghR. K. R.1990. A Preliminary report on an Archaeological exploration at Singtom, Chandel District, Manipur.Man and Environment15(1): 193–106.
74.
SkertchlyS.1879. On the Manufacture of Gun-Flints, the Methods of Excavating for Flint, the Age of Palaeolithic Man, and the Connection between Neolithic Art and the Gun-Flint Trade.Memoirs of the Geological Survey of England and Wales.London: Geological Survey.
75.
SpethJ. D.1972. Mechanical basis of percussion flaking.American Antiquity.37: 34–60.
76.
WymerJ.1982. The Paleolithic Age.New York: St. Martin's.
77.
WhiteM. and AshtonN.2003. Lower Palaeolithic core technology and the origins of the Levallois method in North-Western Europe.Current Anthropology, 44(4): 598–609.
78.
WynnT.1979. The Intelligence of later Acheulian hominids.Man (N.S.), 14(3): 371–391.
79.
WynnT.1981. The Intelligence of Oldowan hominids.Journal of Human Evolution.10: 529–541.
80.
WynnT.1985. Piaget, stone tools and the evolution of human intelligence.World Archaeology, 17(1): 32–43.
81.
WynnT. and McGrewM.C.1989. An ape's view of the Oldowan.Man (N.S.), 24(3): 383–389.
82.
YoungC.C.1933. Fossil man and summary of Cenozoic geology in China.Geological Memoirs, Series B, 5: 5–58.
83.
YvorraP.2000. ‘Exploitation de 1'analyse quantitative des retouches pour la caracterisation des industries lithiques du Mousterien: application au facies Quina de la vallee du Rhone’ BAR International Series, No. 869. Oxford: Oxbow.
