We examined seven factors that shape buyers’ trust in non-fungible tokens (NFTs): authenticity, cost, operational transparency, community behaviour, security, utility and credibility. Through exploratory factor analysis and structural equation modelling, we explore the influence of the factors and subfactors on trust perceptions and levels of confidence of NFT buyers. The results suggest that transparency, cost, community engagement and security measures increase the trust of users, while credibility and utility have little impact. Key point to note, authenticity showed less significant influence on trust, which may be due to the reason of imprecise understanding of the subfactors. The study provides practical recommendations to promote user engagement and loyalty among NFT platforms, focusing on transparency, thorough security audits and active community governance. Ultimately, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of trust dynamics within the rapidly evolving NFT ecosystem.
AakerJ., FournierS., & BraselS. A. (2004). When good brands do bad. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1086/383419
2.
AkroutH., DialloM. F., AkroutW., & ChandonJ. L. (2016). Affective trust in buyer-seller relationships: A two-dimensional scale. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 31(2), 260–273. https://doi.org/10.1108/JBIM-11-2014-0223
3.
AlagarsamyS., MehroliaS., & AranhaR. H. (2023). The mediating effect of employee engagement: How employee psychological empowerment impacts the employee satisfaction? A study of Maldivian tourism sector. Global Business Review, 24(4), 768–786. https://doi.org/10.1177/0972150920915315
4.
AliO., MominM., ShresthaA., DasR., AlhajjF., & DwivediY. K. (2023). A review of the key challenges of non-fungible tokens. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 187, 122248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2022.122248
5.
AlKhaderW., JayaramanR., SalahK., SleptchenkoA., AntonyJ., & OmarM. (2023). Leveraging blockchain and NFTs for quality 4.0 implementation in digital manufacturing. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, 34(7), 1208–1234. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMTM-05-2023-0172
6.
AlnoorA., AtiyahA. G., & AbbasS. (2024). Blockchain adoption strategy from the perspective of organization, technology and environment theory: A hybrid SEM and ANN approach. Global Business Review. https://doi.org/10.1177/09721509241255482
7.
AndersonJ. C., & GerbingD. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411
8.
AnteL. (2022). The non-fungible token (NFT) market and its relationship with Bitcoin and Ethereum. FinTech, 1(3), 216–224. https://doi.org/10.3390/fintech1030017
9.
AnteL. (2024). The polychotomy of NFT ownership: Motivational heterogeneity and underlying drivers. Digital Business, 4(2), 100091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.digbus.2024.100091
10.
AnthonyB.Jr. (2024). Enhancing blockchain interoperability and intraoperability capabilities in collaborative enterprise—A standardized architecture perspective. Enterprise Information Systems, 18(3), 2296647. https://doi.org/10.1080/17517575.2023.2296647
11.
AytasM., & KaraviranC. (2025). Looking at NFT art through the eyes of virtual communities: A netnographic analysis. SAGE Open, 15(1), 21582440241311348. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241311348
12.
BabelK., DaianP., KelkarM., & JuelsA. (2023). Clockwork finance: Automated analysis of economic security in smart contracts. In 2023 IEEE symposium on security and privacy (SP) (pp. 2499–2516). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/SP46215.2023.10179346
13.
Banaeian FarS., & Hosseini BamakanS. M. (2023). NFT-based identity management in metaverses: Challenges and opportunities. SN Applied Sciences, 5(10), 260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-023-05487-5
14.
BattahA., MadineM., YaqoobI., SalahK., HasanH. R., & JayaramanR. (2022). Blockchain and NFTs for trusted ownership, trading, and access of AI models. IEEE Access, 10, 112230–112249. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3215660
15.
BhujelS., & RahulamathavanY. (2022). A survey: Security, transparency, and scalability issues of NFTs and its marketplaces. Sensors, 22(22), 8833. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22228833
16.
BiniM., NasciaL., & ZeliA. (2023). Environmental versus firm-level determinants of firm growth: A structural equation modelling for micro-level analysis of business group firms. Global Business Review, 24(4), 787–799. https://doi.org/10.1177/0972150920923078
BommisettiR. K., RajB. K., SubbalakshmiA. V. V. S., ShehryarM., & HoangS. D. (2022). Blockchain in trust with reputation management for financial stock market using distributed ledger technology and Bayesian theory based on fault tolerance model. Global Business Review. https://doi.org/10.1177/09721509221110371
19.
BrahmstaedtK. (2025). Community and consumer dynamics in NFTs: Understanding digital asset value through social engagement. Journal of Consumer Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.2482
20.
BrownT. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. Guilford Publications.
21.
BrowneM. W., & CudeckR. (1992). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sociological Methods & Research, 21(2), 230–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124192021002005
22.
CastaldoS. (2007). Trust in market relationships. Edward Elgar.
23.
CastelfranchiC., & FalconeR. (2010). Trust theory: A socio-cognitive and computational model. John Wiley & Sons.
24.
ChalmersD., FischC., MatthewsR., QuinnW., & ReckerJ. (2022). Beyond the bubble: Will NFTs and digital proof of ownership empower creative industry entrepreneurs?Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 17, e00309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbvi.2022.e00309
25.
ChenS. J., WaseemD., XiaZ. R., TranK. T., LiY., & YaoJ. (2021). To disclose or to falsify: The effects of cognitive trust and affective trust on customer cooperation in contact tracing. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 94, 102867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.102867
26.
ChenH., ZhouC., El SaddikA., & CaiW. (2025). Decentralized Web3 non-fungible token community for societal prosperity? A social capital perspective. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 9(2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1145/3710956
27.
ChuX., IlyasI. F., KrishnanS., & WangJ. (2016). Data cleaning: Overview and emerging challenges. In Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Management of Data (pp. 2201–2206). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/2882903.2912574
28.
CorneliusK. (2021). Betraying blockchain: Accountability, transparency and document standards for non-fungible tokens (NFTs). Information, 12(9), 358. https://doi.org/10.3390/info12090358
29.
DasD., BoseP., RuaroN., KruegelC., & VignaG. (2022). Understanding security issues in the NFT ecosystem. In Proceedings of the 2022 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (pp. 667–681). https://doi.org/10.1145/3548606.3559342
30.
DavisF. D., BagozziR. P., & WarshawP. R. (1989). User acceptance of computer technology: A comparison of two theoretical models. Management Science, 35(8), 982–1003. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.35.8.982
31.
DholakiaU. (2023). Price transparency. In Transparency in business: An integrative view (pp. 49–82). Springer.
32.
Di AngeloM., & SalzerG. (2020). Tokens, types, and standards: Identification and utilization in Ethereum. In 2020 IEEE International Conference on Decentralized Applications and Infrastructures (DAPPS) (pp. 1–10). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/DAPPS49028.2020.00001
33.
DowlingM. (2022). Is non-fungible token pricing driven by cryptocurrencies?Finance Research Letters, 44, 102097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2021.102097
34.
EllulJ., & RevolidisI. (2023). Non-fungible tokens (NFTs), smart contracts and contracts: The need for legal and technology assurances. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4325415
35.
FalkB. H., GuB., TsoukalasG., & ZhangN. (2024). Economics of NFTs: The value of creator royalties. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4284776
36.
FlickC. (2022). A critical professional ethical analysis of non-fungible tokens (NFTs). Journal of Responsible Technology, 12, 100054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrt.2022.100054
37.
FrosioG., & O’DwyerA. (2024). Art in an age of non-fungible tokens: Authenticity, value, and counterfeit. In NFTs, creativity and the law (pp. 146–167). Routledge. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4607066
38.
GandhiM., UbbaS., & Jyoti. (2023). Effect of consumer value perception on consumer purchase intention: A case of private label apparels. Global Business Review. https://doi.org/10.1177/09721509231166256
39.
GebreabS. A., HasanH. R., SalahK., & JayaramanR. (2022). NFT-based traceability and ownership management of medical devices. IEEE Access, 10, 126394–126411. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3226128
40.
GefenD., KarahannaE., & StraubD. (2003). Trust and TAM in online shopping: An integrated model. MIS Quarterly, 27(1), 51–90. https://doi.org/10.2307/30036519
41.
GhirmaiS., MebrahtomD., AloqailyM., GuizaniM., & DebbahM. (2022). Self-sovereign identity for trust and interoperability in the metaverse. In 2022 IEEE Smartworld, Ubiquitous Intelligence & Computing, Scalable Computing & Communications, Digital Twin, Privacy Computing, Metaverse, Autonomous & Trusted Vehicles (SmartWorld/UIC/ScalCom/DigitalTwin/PriComp/Meta) (pp. 2468–2475). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/SmartWorld-UIC-ATC-ScalCom-DigitalTwin-PriComp-Metaverse56740.2022.00345
42.
GoldbergM., & SchärF. (2023). Metaverse governance: An empirical analysis of voting within decentralized autonomous organizations. Journal of Business Research, 160, 113764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.113764
HairJ. F., BlackW. C., BabinB. J., & AndersonR. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson Education.
45.
HasanR., AshfaqM., & ShaoL. (2024). Evaluating drivers of FinTech adoption in the Netherlands. Global Business Review, 25(6), 1576–1589. https://doi.org/10.1177/09721509211027402
46.
HasanH. R., SalahK., BattahA., MadineM., YaqoobI., JayaramanR., & OmarM. (2022). Incorporating registration, reputation, and incentivization into the NFT ecosystem. IEEE Access, 10, 76416–76433. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3192388
47.
HensonR. K., & RobertsJ. K. (2006). Use of exploratory factor analysis in published research: Common errors and some comment on improved practice. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(3), 393–416. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164405282485
48.
HoeS. L. (2008). Issues and procedures in adopting structural equation modelling technique. Journal of Quantitative Methods, 3(1), 76–83. https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/sis_research/5168.
HosmerL. T. (1995). Trust: The connecting link between organizational theory and philosophical ethics. Academy of Management Review, 20(2), 379–403. https://doi.org/10.2307/258851
51.
JiangB., SudhirK., & ZouT. (2021). Effects of cost-information transparency on intertemporal price discrimination. Production and Operations Management, 30(2), 390–401. https://doi.org/10.1111/poms.13270
52.
JohnsonD., & GraysonK. (2005). Cognitive and affective trust in service relationships. Journal of Business Research, 58(4), 500–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(03)00140-5
53.
JohriA., SayalA., ChaithraN., JhaJ., AggarwalN., PawarD., GuptaV., & GuptaA. (2024). Crafting the techno-functional blocks for metaverse—A review and research agenda. International Journal of Information Management Data Insights, 4(1), 100213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jjimei.2024.100213
54.
JöreskogK. G. (1969). A general approach to confirmatory maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 34(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02289343
55.
KaradagB., ZaimA. H., & AkbulutA. (2024). Blockchain-based KYC model for credit allocation in banking. IEEE Access, 12, 80176–80182. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3410874
56.
KaushikP., KadarF. T. A., RathoreR., RathoreS. P. S., TiwariM., & AwasthiS. (2025). Investigating the dynamics of NFT marketplaces. In 2025 International Conference on Intelligent Control, Computing and Communications (IC3) (pp. 49–53). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/IC363308.2025.10957112
57.
KimD., LeeM. J., KiW., & KimD. (2022). Exploring the role of user-driven communities in NFT valuation: A case study of Discord. Journal of Multimedia Information System, 9(4), 299–314. https://doi.org/10.33851/JMIS.2022.9.4.299
58.
KlineR. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). Guilford Publications.
59.
KräusslR., & TugnettiA. (2024). Non-fungible tokens (NFTs): A review of pricing determinants, applications and opportunities. Journal of Economic Surveys, 38(2), 555–574. https://doi.org/10.1111/joes.12597
60.
KshetriN. (2022). Scams, frauds, and crimes in the nonfungible token market. Computer, 55(4), 60–64. https://doi.org/10.1109/MC.2022.3144763
61.
KucukustaD., MakA., & ChanX. (2013). Corporate social responsibility practices in four and five-star hotels: Perspectives from Hong Kong visitors. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 34, 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2013.01.010
62.
KumarP., & GhodeswarB. M. (2015). Factors affecting consumers’ green product purchase decisions. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 33(3), 330–347. https://doi.org/10.1108/MIP-03-2014-0068
LegoodA., van der WerffL., LeeA., den HartogD., & van KnippenbergD. (2023). A critical review of the conceptualization, operationalization, and empirical literature on cognition-based and affect-based trust. Journal of Management Studies, 60(2), 495–537. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12811
65.
LiuJ., ChenJ., WuJ., WuZ., FangJ., & ZhengZ. (2024). Fishing for fraudsters: Uncovering Ethereum phishing gangs with blockchain data. IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security, 19, 3038–3050. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIFS.2024.3359000
66.
MayerR. C., DavisJ. H., & SchoormanF. D. (1995). An integrative model of organizational trust. Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 709–734. https://doi.org/10.2307/258792
67.
MazurM., & PolyzosE. (2024). Non-fungible tokens (NFTs). In The Elgar companion to decentralized finance, digital assets, and blockchain technologies (pp. 280–297). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781035307760.00019
68.
McAllisterD. J. (1995). Affect-and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 38(1), 24–59. https://doi.org/10.2307/256727
69.
McKnightD. H., CummingsL. L., & ChervanyN. L. (1998). Initial trust formation in new organizational relationships. Academy of Management Review, 23(3), 473–490. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1998.926622
70.
MhatreY., DixitD., SalunkheR., & SharmaS. (2022). Challenges of implementing an NFT marketplace. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), 9(5), 529–535.
71.
MohanB., BuellR. W., & JohnL. K. (2020). Lifting the veil: The benefits of cost transparency. Marketing Science, 39(6), 1105–1121. https://doi.org/10.1287/mksc.2019.1200
72.
MulaikS. A. (2018). Fundamentals of common factor analysis. In The Wiley handbook of psychometric testing: A multidisciplinary reference on survey, scale and test development (pp. 209–251). Wiley Online Library. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118489772.ch8
73.
NadiniM., AlessandrettiL., Di GiacintoF., MartinoM., AielloL. M., & BaronchelliA. (2021). Mapping the NFT revolution: Market trends, trade networks, and visual features. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 20902. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-00053-8
74.
NowandishH., NortaA., & NormakP. (2023). Blockchain oracles for asset ownership verification and trust establishment in the metaverse. In International congress on blockchain and applications (pp. 509–514). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45155-3_48
75.
PandiarajanA., VaasaviC. V. L., & ParimalaG. (2023). Blockfund—Leveraging escrow and milestone algorithm for secure crowdfunding. In 2023 3rd International Conference on Innovative Mechanisms for Industry Applications (ICIMIA) (pp. 177–181). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICIMIA60377.2023.10425876
76.
ParkA., WilsonM., RobsonK., DemetisD., & KietzmannJ. (2023). Interoperability: Our exciting and terrifying Web3 future. Business Horizons, 66(4), 529–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2022.10.005
77.
PaulJ., ModiA., & PatelJ. (2016). Predicting green product consumption using theory of planned behavior and reasoned action. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 29, 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2015.11.006
78.
PavlouP. A. (2002). Institution-based trust in interorganizational exchange relationships: The role of online B2B marketplaces on trust formation. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 11(3–4), 215–243.
79.
PelganderL., ÖbergC., & BarkenäsL. (2022). Trust and the sharing economy. Digital Business, 2(2), 100048. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.digbus.2022.100048
80.
PhucN., KhanhH., KhoaT., KhiemH., HuongH., NganN., TrietN., KhaN., AnhN., & LuQ. (2023). An enhanced CoD system leveraging blockchain, smart contracts, and NFTs: A new approach for trustless transactions. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications, 14(10), 1247–1257. https://doi.org/10.14569/IJACSA.2023.01410102
81.
PopescuA.-D. (2021). Non-fungible tokens (NFT)—Innovation beyond the craze. In 5th International Conference on Innovation in Business, Economics and Marketing Research (Vol. 32, pp. 26–30).
82.
PunyatoyaP. (2019). Effects of cognitive and affective trust on online customer behavior. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 37(1), 80–96. https://doi.org/10.1108/MIP-02-2018-0058
83.
RasolroveicyM., & FokaefsM. (2022). Performance and cost evaluation of public blockchain: An NFT marketplace case study. In 2022 4th Conference on Blockchain Research & Applications for Innovative Networks and Services (BRAINS) (pp. 79–86). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/BRAINS55737.2022.9908999
84.
RikkenO., JanssenM., & KweeZ. (2023). The ins and outs of decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs) unraveling the definitions, characteristics, and emerging developments of DAOs. Blockchain: Research and Applications, 4(3), 100143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcra.2023.100143
85.
RousseauD. M., SitkinS. B., BurtR. S., & CamererC. (1998). Not so different after all: A cross-discipline view of trust. Academy of Management Review, 23(3), 393–404. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1998.926617
86.
SchwiderowskiJ., PedersenA. B., JensenJ. K., & BeckR. (2023). Value creation and capture in decentralized finance markets: Non-fungible tokens as a class of digital assets. Electronic Markets, 33(1), 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12525-023-00658-z
87.
SestinoA., GiraldiL., CedrolaE., ZamaniS. Z., & GuidoG. (2022). The business opportunity of blockchain value creation among the internet of value. Global Business Review. https://doi.org/10.1177/09721509221115012
88.
SheldonM. D. (2022). Tracking tangible asset ownership and provenance with blockchain. Journal of Information Systems, 36(3), 153–175. https://doi.org/10.2308/ISYS-2020-042
89.
StuparS., ŠahićE., Bičo ĆarM., & CicoM. (2024). Application, challenges and the future of NFT technology. In International Conference “New Technologies, Development and Applications” (pp. 21–31). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-66271-3_3
90.
SungC., KwonO., & SohnK. (2023). NFT luxury brand marketing in the metaverse: Leveraging blockchain-certified NFTs to drive consumer behavior. Psychology & Marketing, 40(11), 2306–2325. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21854
91.
TeubnerT., DannD., HawlitschekF., & MöhlmannM. (2024). First vs. lasting impressions: How cognitive and affective trust cues coordinate match-making in online sharing platforms. Group Decision and Negotiation, 33(2), 217–265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10726-023-09860-y
ThompsonB. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10694-000
94.
ThurstoneL. L. (1948). Psychological implications of factor analysis. American Psychologist, 3(9), 402–408. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0058069
95.
TranV. D., & NguyenT. D. (2022). The impact of security, individuality, reputation, and consumer attitudes on purchase intention of online shopping: The evidence in Vietnam. Cogent Psychology, 9(1), 2035530. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2022.2035530
96.
TriftsV., & HäublG. (2003). Information availability and consumer preference: Can online retailers benefit from providing access to competitor price information?Journal of Consumer Psychology, 13(1–2), 149–159. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327663JCP13-1&2_13
97.
VenkateshV., MorrisM. G., DavisG. B., & DavisF. D. (2003). User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view. MIS Quarterly, 27(3), 425–478. https://doi.org/10.2307/30036540
98.
VerginadisY., AlmpanoudisO., ApostolouD., de OliveiraM. T., & MentzasG. (2025). NFT-based data provenance for AI transparency in enterprise information systems. Procedia Computer Science, 256, 565–572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2025.02.153
99.
VormE. S., & CombsD. J. (2022). Integrating transparency, trust, and acceptance: The intelligent systems technology acceptance model (ISTAM). International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 38(18–20), 1828–1845. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2022.2070107
100.
WangA., GaoZ., LeeL. H., BraudT., & HuiP. (2022). Decentralized, not dehumanized in the metaverse: Bringing utility to NFTs through multimodal interaction. In Proceedings of the 2022 International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 662–667). https://doi.org/10.1145/3536221.3558176
WheelessL. R., & GrotzJ. (1977). The measurement of trust and its relationship to self-disclosure. Human Communication Research, 3(3), 250–257. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1977.tb00523.x
103.
WuJ., LinK., LinD., ZhengZ., HuangH., & ZhengZ. (2023). Financial crimes in Web3-empowered metaverse: Taxonomy, countermeasures, and opportunities. IEEE Open Journal of the Computer Society, 4, 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1109/OJCS.2023.3245801
104.
YadavM., & RahmanZ. (2018). The influence of social media marketing activities on customer loyalty: A study of e-commerce industry. Benchmarking: An International Journal, 25(9), 3882–3905. https://doi.org/10.1108/BIJ-05-2017-0092
105.
YuanY., LiuX., ZhangS., & SrinivasanK. (2025). Gender and racial price disparities in the NFT marketplace. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 42(3), 644–667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2024.08.008
106.
ZadorozhnyiZ.-M., MuravskyiV., Humenna-DerijM., & ZarudnaN. (2022). Innovative accounting and audit of the metaverse resources. Marketing i Menedžment Innovacij, 13(4), 10–19. https://doi.org/10.21272/mmi.2022.4-02
107.
ZouD., GuM., & LiuD. (2024). When ownership and copyright are separated: Economics of non-fungible token marketplaces with secondary markets. Decision Support Systems, 47(10), 114247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2024.114247
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
