This article seeks to locate and analyse the ecological and socio-political conditions specific to hill agriculture within Kashmir in a medieval context. It draws upon a range of sources—texts, travel accounts and personal observation, as also interaction with farmers—to put the story together.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abul Fazl, Ain-i Akbari
. Edited by
H. Blochmann
, 2 volumes, Bibliothica Indica, Calcutta, 1867–77. English translation into 3 volumes; vol. I by H. Blochmann, revised by D.C. Phillott and vols II and III by H.S. Jarrett. Revised by J.N. Sarkar, Calcutta: 1927–39 (vol. I), 1949 (vol. II), 1948 (vol. III).
2.
Anonymous, Tarikh-i Kalan (unpublished Persian manuscript), Punjab Archives, Patiala.
3.
Anonymous, Baharistan-i Shahi (unpublished Persian manuscript), Research Department Library, Kashmir University, Srinagar, Kashmir.
4.
Bates, Charles Ellison
. 1873. A Gazetteer of Kashmir and Adjoining Districts of Kishtwar, Badarwah, Jammu, Naushera, Punch and the Valley of Kishenganga,
Calcutta
.
5.
Bernier, Francios
. 1891. Travels in Mogul Empire, 1656–68. Translated from the French by
Irving Brock
; revised and annotated by
A. Constable
,
London
.
6.
Bhag Ram, Pandit
. 1892. Annual Administrative Report of Jammu and Kashmir (1890–91),
Jammu
.
7.
Bhag Ram, Pandit
. 1897. Annual Administrative Report of Jammu and Kashmir,
Jammu
.
8.
Census of Jammu and Kashmir, 1881.
Jammu Archives
.
9.
Chadurah, Haider Malik, Tarikh-i Kashmir (unpublished Persian manuscript), Research Department Library, Kashmir University, Srinagar, Kashmir.
10.
Darwin, Charles
. 1881. The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms and other Invertebrates with Observation on their Habits,
London
.
11.
Douie, Sir James
. 1994. The Punjab North Western Frontier Province and Kashmir,
New Delhi
. Reprint.
12.
Drew, Fredric
. 1877. The Northern Barrier of India,
London
.
13.
Drew, Fredric
. 2002. Jammu and Kashmir Territories: A Geographical Account,
New Delhi
. Reprint; originally printed 1875, London.
14.
Dughlat, Mirza Muhammad Haidar
. 1895. Tarikh-i Rashidi, English translation by
Sir E. Denison Ross
, with an introduction by
N. Elias
,
London
.
15.
Gazetteer of Kashmir and Ladakh. 1890. Compiled under the Quarter Master General in India, The Intelligence Branch,
Calcutta
.
16.
Girdlestone, Charles
. 1873. Memorandum on Kashmir,
Calcutta
.
17.
Imperial Gazetteer of India. 1908. vol. xv (from Karachi to Kottayam),
Oxford
.
18.
Jacquemont, Victor
. 1825. Letters from India, Describing a Journey in British Dominions of India, Tibet, Lahoul and Cashmir, 2 vols,
London
.
19.
Jahangir
. 1909–14. Tuzuk-i Jahangiri, 2 vols, English translation by
A. Rogers
and
H. Beveridge
,
London
.
20.
Jonaraja
. 1898. Zaina Rajatarangini. English translation by
J.C. Dutt
as Kings of Kashmir, 3 vols,
Calcutta
.
21.
Joo, Mahad. Various Trades in Kashmir (1823–24) (unpublished document), Jammu Archives.
22.
Kalhana
. 1900. Rajatarangini, 2 vols, (Sanskrit A.D. 1149–50). English translation by
M.A. Stein
,
London
.
23.
Khoihami, Pir Hassan Shah
, 1885. Tarikh-i Hassan, 3 vols,
Research Department Library, Kashmir University, Srinagar, Kashmir
.
24.
Kripa Ram, Dewan
. 1877. Gulzar-i Kashmir (Persian),
Lahore
.
25.
Lal, Dewan Krishen. 1848. ‘An Account of Kashmir’, Foreign Department Section, 31 March 1848, File no. 68 (unpublished document), National Archives of India, New Delhi.
26.
Lal, Ganeshi
. 1976. Sayahat-nama. Persian (1848), English translation by
V.S. Suri
,
Chandigarh
.
27.
Lawrence, W.R. 1891. Assessment Report of Uri Tehsil (unpublished document), Jammu and Kashmir Archives, Jammu.
Lawrence, W.R. 1905. Impact of New Settlement on the Cultivator of Kashmir (unpublished document), Jammu and Kashmir State Archives, Srinagar.
33.
Lawrence, W.R.1909. Imperial Gazetteer of India, Provincial Series, Jammu and Kashmir,
Calcutta
.
34.
Lawrence, W.R.1909. Provincial Gazetteer (Jammu and Kashmir),
Calcutta
.
35.
Majmui Reports (in Urdu), 1887 to 1891,
Jammu and Kashmir State Archives, Srinagar
.
36.
Mirza, Saif-ud-din, 1846–1857. Akhbarat, 13 vols (unpublished collection), Research Department Library at Kashmir University, Srinagar, Kashmir.
37.
Moorcroft, William
. The William Moorcroft Collection at the Oriental and India Office Collections,
The British Library, London
, MS EUR.D.265.
38.
Moorcroft, William
. 1841. Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan, Punjab, in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawur, Kabul, Kunduz and Bukhara, from 1819 to 1825, 2 volumes,
London
.
39.
Note on Assessment Report of Karnah Tehsil, Muzaffarabad, 1901, Lahore (Unpublished document) in Jammu archives.
40.
Sayyid Ali
. Tarikh-i Kashmir (Persian manuscript),
Research Department Library at Kashmir University, Srinagar, Kashmir
.
41.
Singh, Partap. 1893. Diary of an Inspection Tour to Gilgit, 1893, Unpublished document, Jammu and Kashmir State Archives, Jammu.
42.
Srivara
. 1898. Rajatarangini. English translation by
J.C. Dutt
as Kings of Kashmir, 3 vols,
Calcutta
.
43.
Stein, M.A.1899. Ancient Geography of Kashmir,
Calcutta
.
44.
Tennant, William
. 1804. Indian Recreations: Consisting of Strictures on the Domestic and Rural Economy of Mohammedans and Hindoos, 2 vols,
Edinburgh
.
45.
Vigne, G.T.1842. Travels in Kashmir, Ladakh and Iskardo, 2 vols,
London
.
46.
Voelker, John Augustus
. 1893. Report on Improvements in Indian Agriculture,
London
.
47.
Wingate, A., ‘Preliminary Report of Land Settlement in Jammu and Kashmir 1889’ (unpublished document), Jammu Archives.
48.
Wakefield, W.1975. The History of Kashmir and Kashmiris,
Delhi
. Reprint.
49.
Wreford, R.G.1943. Census of India, vol. XXII, 1941,
Jammu
.
50.
Younghusband, Sir Francis
. 1996. Kashmir,
Srinagar
. Reprint.
51.
A Report of British Empire Exhibition, Jammu and Kashmir Handbook, 1924,
London
.
52.
Bamzai, P.N.K.1988. Socio-Economic History of Kashmir (1846–1925), reprint,
New Delhi
.
53.
Bernal, J.D.1954. Science in History, 4 vols,
Harmondsworth
.
54.
Bloch, Marc
. 1990. ‘Technology and Social Evolution; Reflections of a Historian’, in S.
Bhattacharya
and
P. Redondi
(eds), Techniques to Technology. A French Historiography of Technology,
Hyderabad
. The English translation by
Radha Sharma
.
55.
Census of India, 1931,
Jammu and Kashmir
, Part I.
56.
Clarke, G.1930. ‘
Some Aspects of Soil Improvement in Relation to Crop Production
’, Proceedings of the Seventh Indian Science Congress, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.
57.
Gokhle, B.G.1971. ‘Tobacco in 17th century India’, Agriculture History, vol. 48, October.
58.
Grevis, P.1954. This is Kashmir,
London
.
59.
Habib, Irfan
. 1963. Agrarian System of Mughal India,
Bombay
.
60.
Habib, Irfan
. 1969. ‘
Technological Changes and Society, Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries
’, Presidential Address to Medieval India Section, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Varanasi.
61.
Habib, Irfan
. 1978–79. ‘
Technology and Barriers to Technological Change in Mughal India
’, Indian Historical Review, vol. V(1–2):
152–74
.
62.
Habib, Irfan
. 1980. ‘
The Technology and Economy of Mughal India
’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, vol. XVII(1):
1–34
.
63.
Hangloo, Rattan Lal
. 1982. Agrarian System of Kashmir (1846–1900),
New Delhi
.
64.
Howard, L.E.1947. The Earth's Green Carpet,
London
.
65.
Howard, A.
and
G.L.C. Howard
. 1929. The Development of Indian Agriculture,
Oxford
.
66.
Howard, A.1956. An Agricultural Testament,
Goa
. Reprint.
67.
Howard, A.
and
Y.D. Wad
. 1931. The Waste Products of Agriculture; Their Utilization as Humus,
Oxford
.
68.
Mukhia, Harbans
. 1993. ‘Agricultural Technology in Medieval North India’, in his Perspectives on Medieval History,
New Delhi
.
69.
Raina, A.N.1971. Geography of Jammu and Kashmir State,
New Delhi
.
70.
Randhawa, M.S.1980. A History of Agriculture in India, 3 vols,
New Delhi
.
71.
Sharma, D.C.1986. Kashmir Agriculture and Land Revenue System under Sikh Rule (1819–46),
New Delhi
.
72.
NCAER (National Council of Applied Economic Research). 1969. Techno-Economic Survey of Jammu and Kashmir State,
New Delhi
.
73.
Wadia, D.N.1961. The Geology of India,
London
.
74.
Waksman, S.A.1938. Humus Origin, Chemical Composition, and Importance in Nature,
London
.
75.
Zutshi, N.K.1976. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin,
Lucknow
.
