This paper argues that science as an activity in developed countries has in recent years undergone a radical shift from its traditional Mertonian form to a new. commodified variant. The impetus for this change has been the funding decisions of governments. As a result, science has been 'captured' by the private sector and, consequently, public trust in and understanding of science has diminished. These argumenis are explored by setting out the two models and then explaining the process of change by reference to universities as examples. The paper then presents two case studies, one of genetically modified organisms and the other on mobile phone safety, to illustrate the breakdown in public understanding and acceptance of science.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Allington, Nigel F.B., and N.J. O'Shaughnessy (1989), 'British Universities: The State Monopoly and its Impact: A Situational Analysis and Proposals for Reform' . Proceedings of the Funding and Management of Higher Education Conference, Institute of Economic Affairs, 17-18 January, St George's House, Windsor Castle, UK.
2.
Anderson, P.W. (2000), 'Snowballing, But Still Very Much in Control' , Times Higher Education Supplement, 27 October, pp. 30-31.
3.
Baker, K. (Secretary of State for Education and Science) (1989), 'Science Policy: The Way Ahead', The First Plenary Meeting of the Academia Europaea, 26 June, London.
4.
Boden, R., P. Gummett, D. Cox and K. Barker (1998), 'Men in White Coats...Men in Grey Suits: New Public Management and the Funding of Scientific Research in the UK', Journal of Auditing, Accounting and Accountability , 11 (3), pp. 267-91.
5.
Boden, R., D. Cox and L. Georghiou (2000), 'Administrative Reform of United Kingdom Government Research Establishments: Case Studies of New Organisational Reforms', in P. Gummett, D. Cox and K. Barker, eds, Government Laboratories . Brussels: NATO Books .
6.
Corsten, H., and K.O. Juginger-Dittel (1988), Utilization ofthe Results of Public Research and Development (EEC Report, EUR 11243 EN). Brussels: Commission of the European Community.
7.
Dasgupta, P., and P.A. David (1994), 'Towards a New Economics of Science', Research Policy, 23 (5), pp. 487-521.
8.
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) (1962), DSIR: Universities and Colleges 1956-60 . London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
9.
Dimancescu, D., and J. Botkin (1986), The New Alliance: America's R&D Consortia . Cambridge, MA: Ballinger .
10.
Dooris, M.J. (1989), 'Organizational Adaptation and the Commercialization of Research Universities', Planning for Higher Education , 17 (3), pp. 21-31.
11.
Ferrara, J. (1998), 'Revolving Doors: Monsanto and the Regulators' , The Ecologist, 28 (5), pp. 280-86.
12.
Geuna, Aldo (1999), The Economics of Knowledge Production: Funding and the Structure of University Research. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
13.
Gibbons, Michael, C. Limoges, H. Nowotny, S. Schwartzman, P. Scott and M. Trow (1997), The New Production of Knowledge. London: Sage Publications.
14.
Gibbons, Michael, H. Nowotny and P. Scott (2001), Re-Thinking Science. Cambridge: Polity Press.
15.
Gluck, Michael E., D. Blumenthal and M.A. Stoto (1987), 'University-Industry Relationships in the Life Sciences: Implications for Students and Post-doctoral Fellows', Research Policy, 16(1), pp. 327-36.
16.
Haraway, D. (1991), Simians. Cyborgs and Women. London: Free Association Books.
17.
Highfield, R. (1997), 'Scientists Warn of Mobile Phone Link with Cancer' , Electronic Telegraph, I May.
18.
Ho, Mae-Wan (1997), 'The Unholy Alliance', The Ecologist, 27 (4), pp. 152-58.
19.
Kenney, M. (1986), Biotechnology: The University Industrial Complex . New Haven: Yale University Press.
20.
Kyvik, Svein (1997), 'Funding University Research in the Nordic Countries' , Science and Public Policy, 24 (4), pp. 233-44.
21.
Lappe, M., and B. Bailey (1998), Against the Grain: Biotechnology and the Corporate Takeover of Your Food. Maine: Common Courage Press.
22.
Lee, Yong S. (1996), '"Technology Transfer" and the Research University: A Search for the Boundaries of University-Industry Collaboration', Research Policy, 25 (6), pp. 843-63.
23.
Mansfield, E., and Jeong-Yeon Lee (1996), 'The Modem University: Contributor of Industrial Innovation and Recipient of Industrial R&D Support', Research Policy, 25 (7), pp. 1047-58.
24.
Merton, Robert K. (1973), The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
25.
Rose, H., and S. Rose (1969), Science and Society. London: Penguin.
26.
Rose, H. (1994), Love, Power and Knowledge: Towards a Feminist Transformation of the Sciences. Cambridge: Polity.
27.
Rosenberg, N., and R.R. Nelson (1994), 'American Universities and Technical Advance in Industry', Research Policy, 23 (3), pp. 323-48.
28.
Roy, R., and D. Shapley (1985), Lost at the Frontier. Philadelphia: ISI Press.
29.
Schimank, U. (1988), 'The Contribution of University Research to the Technological Innovation of the German Economy: Societal Auto-dynamic and Political Guidance', Research Policy, 17 (6), pp. 329-40.
30.
Schwartzman, S., F. Galembeck, E.A. Guimaraes and C.O. Bertero (1993), 'Science and Technology in Brazil: A New Policy for a Global World'. Summary document of the Science and Technology Policy Study for the Brazilian Ministry of Science and Technology, Sao Paulo School of Business Administration, Sao Paulo .
31.
Stankiewicz, R. (1985), 'A New Role for Universities in Technological Innovation', in G. Sweeny, ed., Innovation Policies in an International Perspective. London: Frances Pinter Publishers.
32.
Van Dierdonck, R., K. Debackere and B. Engelen (1990), 'University-Industry Relationships : How Does the Belgian Academic Community Feel About It?', Research Policy, 19 (6), pp. 551-66.
33.
Waissbluth, M., G. Cadena and J.L. Solleiro (1988), 'Linking University and Industry: An Organizational Experience in Mexico', Research Policy , 17 (6), pp. 341-47.
34.
Wertheim, M. (1995), Pythagoras' Trousers: God, Physics and the Gender Wars. New York: Times Books/Random House.
35.
Ziman, John (2000), Real Science: What It Is, and What It Means . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
