Karma-Yoga, the technique of performing action such that the soul of the actor is not bound by the results of the action, constitutes the Indian work ideal. The relationship of Karma-Yoga with the dimensions of empathy was explored through a study done on 108 students in a postgraduate programme of business management. Karma-Yoga was found to be related to some dimensions of empathy. The results highlighted the differential impact of dimensions of empathy. Empathic concern was found to be related to Karma-Yoga only for those individuals who were low on personal distress. For individuals high on personal distress, empathic concern was not related to Karma-Yoga. Findings indicate that Karma-Yoga is very similar to altruism motivation in the Indian context. Individuals who are high on empathic concern and low on personal distress are more likely to take actions for the benefit of others rather than for their own benefit.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Agrawal, M. , & Dalal, A.K. (1993). Beliefs about the world and recovery from myocardial infarction . The Journal of Social Psychology, 133 (3), 385–394 .
2.
Barnett, M.A. , Howard, J.A. , King, L.M. , & Dino, G.A. (1981). Helping behavior and the transfer of empathy . Journal of Social Psychology, 115 (1), 125–132 .
3.
Batson, C.D. , Batson, J.G. , Griffitt, C.A. , Barrientos, S. , Brandt, J.R. , Sprengelmeyer, P. , & Bayly, M.J. (1989). Negative-state relief and the empathy-altruism hypothesis . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56 (6), 922–933 .
4.
Batson, C.D. , Batson, J.G. , Slingsby, J.K. , Harrell, K.L. , Peekna, H.M. , & Todd, R.M. (1991). Empathic joy and the empathy-altruism hypothesis . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61 (3), 413–426 .
5.
Batson, C.D. , Batson, J.G. , Todd, R.M. , Brummett, B.H. , Shaw, L.L. , & Aldeguer, C.M.R. (1995). Empathy and the collective good: Caring for one of the others in a social dilemma . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68 (4), 619–631 .
6.
Batson, C.D. , Duncan, B.D. , Ackerman, P. , Buckley, T. , & Birch, K. (1981). Is empathic emotion a source of altruistic motivation?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40 (2), 290–302 .
7.
Batson, C.D. , Dyck, J.L. , Brandt, J.R. , Batson, J.G. , Powell, A.L. , McMaster, M.R. , & Griffitt, C. (1988). Five studies testing two new egoistic alternatives to the empathy-altruism hypothesis . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55 (1), 52–77 .
8.
Batson, C.D. , Klein, T.R. , Highberger, L. , & Shaw, L.L. (1995). Immorality from empathy-induced altruism: When compassion and justice conflict . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68 (6), 1042–1054 .
9.
Batson, C.D. , O'Quin, K. , Fultz, J. , Vanderplas, M. , & Isen, A.M. (1983). Influence of self-reported distress and empathy on egoistic versus altruistic motivation to help . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45 (3), 706–718 .
10.
Black, H. , & Phillips, S. (1982). An intervention program for the development of empathy in student teachers . Journal of Psychology, 112 (2), 159–168 .
11.
Brems, C. (1989). Dimensionality of empathy and its correlates . Journal of Psychology, 123 (4), 329–337 .
12.
Britton, P.C. , & Fuendeling, J.M. (2005). The relations among varieties of adult attachment and the components of empathy . The Journal of Social Psychology, 145 (5), 529–530 .
13.
Burns, J.M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row .
14.
Carlozzi, A.F. , Bull, K.S. , & Eells, G.T. (1995). Empathy as related to creativity, dogmatism, and expressiveness . Journal of Psychology, 129 (4), 365–373 .
15.
Chlopan, B.E. , McCain, M.L. , Carbonell, J.L. , & Hagen, R.L. (1985). Empathy: Review of available measures . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48 (3), 635–653 .
16.
Cialdini, R.B. , Schaller, M. , Houlihan, D. , Arps, K. , Fulz, J. , & Beaman, A.L. (1987). Empathy-based helping: Is it selflessly or selfishly motivated?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52 (4), 749–758 .
17.
Connors, J. , & Heaven, P.C.L. (1990). Belief in a just world and attitudes toward AIDS sufferers . The Journal of Social Psychology, 130 (4), 559–560 .
18.
Dalal, A.K. , & Pande, N. (1988). Psychological recovery of accident victims with temporary and permanent disability . International Journal of Psychology, 23, 25–40 .
19.
Dasgupta, S. (1991). A history of Indian philosophy, Vol. 1. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas . (Original work published in 1922).
20.
Davis, M.H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy . JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 10, 85 .
21.
Davis, M.H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44 (1), 113–126 .
22.
Davis, M.H. , & Oathout, H.A. (1987). Maintenance of satisfaction in romantic relationships: Empathy and relational competence . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (2), 397–410 .
23.
Davis, M.H. , Luce, C. , & Kraus, S.J. (1994). The heritability of characteristics associated with dispositional empathy . Journal of Personality, 62 (3), 369–391 .
24.
Dovidio, J.F. , Allen, J.L. , & Schroeder, D.A. (1990). Specificity of empathy-induced helping: Evidence for altruistic motivation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59 (2), 249–260 .
25.
Duan, C. , & Hill, C.E. (1996). The current state of empathy research . Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43 (3), 261–274 .
26.
Dumdum, U.R. , Lowe, K.B. , & Avolio, B.J. (2002). A meta-analysis of transformational and transactional leadership correlates of effectiveness and satisfaction: An update and extension. In B.J. Avolio , & F.J. Yammarino (Eds), Transformational and charismatic leadership: The road ahead, Vol. 2 (pp. 35–66). Oxford: JAI .
27.
Eisenberg, N. , & Miller, P.A. (1987). The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviours . Psychological Bulletin, 101 (1), 91–119 .
28.
Fultz, J. , Batson, C.D. , Fortenbach, V.A. , McCarthy, P.M. , & Varney, L.L. (1986). Social evaluation and the empathy-altruism hypothesis . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50 (4), 761–769 .
29.
Gandhi, M.K. (2001). The gospel of selfless action ( M. Desai , Trans.). Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House . (Original work published in 1946).
30.
Ghanananda, S. (1958). The dawn of Indian philosophy. In S. Radhakrishnan , H. Bhattacharyya , R.C. Majumdar , S.K. Chatterji , H. Kabir , S.K. De , et al. (Series Eds), & S.K. Chatterji , N. Dutt , A.D. Pusalker , & N.K. Bose (Vol. Eds), The cultural heritage of India: The early phases, Vol. 1 (2nd ed., pp. 333–344). Kolkata, India: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture .
31.
Hafer, C.L. , & Begue, L. (2005). Experimental research on just-world theory: Problems, developments, and future challenges . Psychological Bulletin, 131 (1), 128–167 .
32.
Herbek, T.A. , & Yammarino, F.J. (1990). Empathy training for hospital staff nurses . Group and Organization Studies, 15 (3), 279–295 .
33.
Hogan, R. (1969). Development of an empathy scale . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33 (3), 307–316 .
34.
House, R.J. , & Aditya, R.N. (1997). The social scientific study of leadership: Quo vadis?Journal of Management, 23 (3), 409–473 .
35.
Joireman, J.A. , Needham, T.L. , & Cummings, A. (2001). Relationships between dimensions of attachment and empathy . North American Journal of Psychology, 3 (3), 63–80 .
36.
Kanungo, R.N. , & Mendonca, M. (1996). Ethical dimensions of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications .
37.
Kejriwal, A. , & Krishnan, V.R. (2004). Impact of Vedic worldview and Gunas on transformational leadership . Vikalpa, 29 (1), 29–40 .
38.
Krishnan, V.R. (2003). Modernization without demolishing cultural roots: The role of transformational leadership. In J. Gifford , & G. Zezulka-Mailloux (Eds), Culture and the State, Vol. 4 (Alternative Interventions) (pp. 164–173). University of Alberta, Edmonton: Canada Research Chairs Humanities Studio .
39.
Krishnananda, S. (1994). A short history of religious and philosophic thought in India. Sivanandanagar, India: The Divine Life Society .
40.
Lopez, N.L. , Bonenberger, J.L. , & Schneider, H.G. (2001). Parental disciplinary history, current levels of empathy, and moral reasoning in young adults . North American Journal of Psychology, 3 (2), 193–204 .
41.
Lowe, K.B. , & Gardner, W.L. (2000). A decade of the leadership quarterly: Contributions and challenges for the future . The Leadership Quarterly, 11 (4), 459–514 .
42.
Macaskill, A. , Maltby, J. , & Day, L. (2002). Forgiveness of self and others and emotional empathy . The Journal of Social Psychology, 142 (5), 663–665 .
43.
Mahadevan, T.M.P. (1958). The religio-philosophic culture of India. In S. Radhakrishnan , H. Bhattacharyya , R.C. Majumdar , S.K. Chatterji , H. Kabir , S.K. De et al. (Series Eds) & S.K. Chatterji , N. Dutt , A.D. Pusalker , & N.K. Bose (Vol. Eds), The cultural heritage of India: The early phases, Vol. 1 (2nd ed., pp. 163–181). Kolkata, India: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture .
44.
McClelland, D.C. , & Burnham, D.H. (1995). Power is the great motivator . Harvard Business Review, January–February, 126–139 . (Original published in 1976).
45.
Miller, P.A. , & Eisenberg, N. (1988). The relation of empathy to aggressive and externalizing/antisocial behaviour . Psychological Bulletin, 103 (3), 324–344 .
46.
Mulla, Z.R. , & Krishnan, V.R. (2006a). Karma Yoga: A conceptualization and validation of the Indian philosophy of work . Journal of Indian Psychology, 24(1 & 2), 26–43 .
47.
Mulla, Z.R. , & Krishnan, V.R. (2006b). Karma-Yoga: Construct validation using value systems and emotional intelligence . Paper presented at the first international conference of Yale-Great Lakes Center for Management Research on Global Mindset-Indian Roots, Chennai, India, 24 December.
48.
Myers, D.G. (1999). Social Psychology (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill .
49.
Narvaez, D. , & Rest, J.R. (1995). The four components of acting morally. In W. Kurtines , & J. Gewitz (Eds), Moral behavior and moral development: An introduction (pp. 385–400). New York: McGraw-Hill .
50.
Pillai, R. , Scandura, T.A. , & Williams, E.A. (1999). Leadership and organizational justice: Similarities and differences across cultures . Journal of International Business Studies, 30 (4), 763–779 .
51.
Podsakoff, P.M. , MacKinzie, S.B. , Lee, J-Y. , & Podsakoff, N.P. (2003). Common method bias in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies . Journal of Applied Psychology, 88 (5), 879–903 .
52.
Podsakoff, P.M. , & Organ, D.W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects . Journal of Management, 12 (4), 531–544 .
53.
Prabhavananda, S. (1960). The spiritual heritage of India. Hollywood, CA: Vedanta Society of Southern California .
54.
Radhakrishnan, S. (1926). The Hindu view of life. New York: HarperCollins .
55.
Radhakrishnan, S. (1940). Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1. London: George Allen & Unwin .
56.
Radhakrishnan, S. (1948/1993). The Bhagvadgita. New York: HarperCollins .
57.
Rokeach, M. (1968). Beliefs, attitudes, and values. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass .
58.
Shamir, B. (1991). Meaning, self, and motivation in organizations . Organization Studies, 12 (3), 405–424 .
59.
Sibicky, M.E. , Schroeder, D.A. , & Dovidio, J.F. (1995). Empathy and helping: Considering the consequences of intervention . Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 16 (4), 435–453 .
60.
Singh, N. , & Krishnan, V.R. (2005a). Towards understanding transformational leadership in India: A grounded theory approach . Vision: The Journal of Business Perspective, 9 (2), 5–17 .
61.
Singh, N. , & Krishnan, V.R. (2005b). Toward a better understanding of transformational leadership: Differentiating between altruism and self-sacrifice . Paper presented at the proceedings of the Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management conference, Canberra.
62.
Tilak, B.G. (2000). Srimad Bhagavadgita-Rahasya ( B.S. Sukhantar , Trans.). Poona, India: Kesari Press . (Original work published in 1915).
63.
Vivekananda, S. (1972). The complete works of Swami Vivekananda (Eight volumes). Calcutta, India: Advaita Ashrama .
64.
Watson, P.J. , Grisham, S.O. , Trotter, M.V. , & Biderman, M.D. (1984). Narcissism and empathy: Validity evidence for the Narcissistic Personality Inventory . Journal of Personality Assessment, 48 (3), 301–305 .
65.
Watson, P.J. , Hood, R.W., Jr. , Morris, R.J. , & Hall, J.R. (1984). Empathy, religious orientation, and social desirability . Journal of Psychology, 117 (2), 211–216 .
66.
Wohlers, A.J. , & London, M. (1989). Ratings of managerial characteristics: Evaluation difficulty, co-worker agreement, and self-awareness . Personnel Psychology, 42 (2), 235–261 .
