Prosocial reasoning of 5to 13-year-old Indian children (N= 167), belonging to low/high socioeconomic strata, was investigated through individual interviews seeking responses to vignettes depicting prosocial dilemmas. Children’s prosocial reasoning was characterised primarily by concern for physical needs of others, hedonistic considerations, orientation to affectional relationship, stereotypes of a good/bad person or behaviour, and internalised norms and values orientation. With age, hedonistic and stereotypic reasoning decreased while orientation to others’ needs, mutual gain, and internalised norms/values increased. Prosocial reasoning of boys and girls did not differ significantly, though there were some SES differences. Distinctive responses reflecting some unique features of the Indian culture were also noted. The results are discussed in the context of sociocultural influences and the proximal environmental circumstances social living.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
BAR-TAL, D. , RAVIV, A. , & SHAVIT, N. (1981). Motives for helping behavior: Kibbutz and city children in kindergarten and school . Developmental Psychology, 17, 766–772 .
2.
BAR-TAL, D. , SHARABANY, R. , & RAVIV, A. (1982). Cognitive basis of the development of altruistic behavior. In V. Derlega & J. Grzelak (Eds), Cooperation and helping behavior (pp. 268–283). Orlando, FL: Academic Press .
3.
BOEHNKE, K. , SILBEREISEN, R.K. , EISENBERG, N. , REYKOWSKI, J. , & PALMONARI, A. (1989). Developmental pattern of prosocial motivation: A cross-national study . Journal of CrossCultural Psychology, 20, 219–243 .
4.
CARLO, G. , EISENBERG, N. , & KNIGHT, G.P. (1992). An objective measure of adolescents’ prosocial moral reasoning . Journal of Research on Adolescence, 2, 331–349 .
5.
DHAWAN, N. , ROSENMAN, I.J. , NAIDU, R.K. , & RETTEK, S.I. (1995). Self concepts across two cultures: India and the United States . Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26, 606–621 .
6.
EISENBERG, N. (1982). The development of reasoning about prosocial behavior. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), The development of prosocial behavior(pp. 219–249). New York: Academic Press .
7.
EISENBERG, N. (1986). Altruistic emotion, cognition and behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
8.
EISENBERG, N. (1990). Prosocial development in early and mid adolescence. In R. Montemayor , G.R. Adams , & T.P. Gullotta (Eds), Advances in adolescence: Vol.2. From childhood to adolescence: A transitional period?(pp. 240–269). Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
9.
EISENBERG, N. , BOEHNKE, K. , SCHUHLER, P. , & SILBEREISEN, R.K. (1985). The development of prosocial behavior and cognition in German children . Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 16, 69–82 .
10.
EISENBERG, N. , CARLO, G. , MURPHY, B. , & VAN COURT, P. (1995). Prosocial development in late adolescence . Child Development, 66, 1179–1197 .
11.
EISENBERG, N. , FABES, R.A. , & SHEA, C. (1989). Gender differences in empathy and prosocial moral reasoning: Empirical investigations. In M.M. Brabeck (Ed.), Who cares? Theory, research, and educational implications of the ethic of care(pp. 127–143). New York: Praeger .
12.
EISENBERG, N. , GUTHRIE, I.K. , CUMBERLAND, A. , MURPHY, B.C. , SHEPARD, S.A. , ZHOU, Q. , & CARLO, G. (2002). Prosocial development in early adulthood: A longitudinal study . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 993–1006 .
13.
EISENBERG, N. , HERTZ-LAZAROWITZ, R. , & FUCHS, I. (1990). Prosocial moral judgment in Israeli kibbutz and city children: A longitudinal study . Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 36, 273–285 .
14.
EISENBERG, N. , LENNON, R. , & ROTH, K. (1983). Prosocial development in childhood: A longitudinal study . Developmental Psychology, 19, 846–855 .
15.
EISENBERG, N. , MILLER, P.A. , SHELL, R. , MCNALLEY, S. , & SHEA, C. (1991). Prosocial development in adolescence: A longitudinal study . Developmental Psychology, 27, 849–857 .
16.
EISENBERG, N. , & MUSSEN, P.H. (1989). The roots of prosocial behavior in children. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press .
17.
EISENBERG, N. , SHELL, R. , PASTERNACK, J. , LENNON, R. , BELLER, R. , & MATHY, R.M. (1987). Prosocial development in middle childhood: A longitudinal study . Developmental Psychology, 23, 712–718 .
18.
EISENBERG, N. , ZHOU, Q. , & KOLLER, S. (2001). Brazilian adolescents’ prosocial moral judgment and behavior: Relations to sympathy, perspective taking, gender role orientation and demographic characteristics . Child Development, 72, 518–534 .
19.
EISENBERG-BERG, N. (1979). Development of children’s prosocial moral judgment . Developmental Psychology, 15, 128–137 .
20.
EISENBERG-BERG, N. , & HAND, M. (1979). The relationship of preschoolers’ reasoning about prosocial moral conflicts to prosocial behavior . Child Development, 50, 356–363 .
21.
EISENBERG-BERG, N. , & ROTH, K. (1980). The development of children’s prosocial moral judgment: A longitudinal follow-up . Developmental Psychology, 16, 375–376 .
22.
FUCHS, I. , EISENBERG, N. , HERTZ-LAZAROWITZ, R. , & SHARABANY, R. (1986). Kibbutz, Israeli city, and American children’s moral reasoning about prosocial moral conflicts . MerrillPalmer Quarterly, 32, 37–50 .
23.
GILLIGAN, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press .
24.
KAUR, B. , MENON, S. , & KONANTAMBIGI, R. (2001). Child and adolescent development research. In J. Pandey (Ed.), Psychology in India revisited—Developments in the discipline. Vol. 2: Personality and health psychology(pp. 163–227). New Delhi: Sage .
25.
KOHLBERG, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive-developmental approach to socialization. In D.A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 325–480). Chicago: Rand McNally .
26.
KOHLBERG, L. (1976). Moral stage and moralization: The cognitive-developmental approach. In T. Lickona (Ed.), Moral development and behavior: Theory, research and social issues (pp. 84–107). New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston .
27.
KOHLBERG, L. (1981). The philosophy of moral development: Moral stages and the idea of justice. New York: Harper & Row .
28.
KOHLBERG, L. (1984). Essays on moral development. Vol. II: The psychology of moral development. New York: Harper & Row .
29.
MARKUS, H.R. , & KITAYAMA, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation . Psychological Review, 98, 224–253 .
30.
MILLER, J.G. (1984). Culture and the development of everyday social explanation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 961–978 .
31.
MILLER, J.G. (1997). Taking culture into account in social cognitive development . Psychology and Developing Societies, 9(1), 9–34 .
32.
MISRA, G. (1990). Psychology of deprivation. In G. Misra (Ed.), Applied social psychology in India(pp. 119–140). New Delhi: Sage .
33.
MISRA, G. (1991). Sociocultural influences on moral behaviour . The Indian Journal of SocialWork, LII(2), 179–194 .
34.
MISRA, G. (1997). Introduction . Psychology and Developing Societies, 9(1), 1–8 .
35.
MISRA, G. (2001). Culture and self: Implications for psychological inquiry . Journal of Indian Psychology, 19, 1–20 .
36.
MISRA, G. , & GIRI, R.S. (1995). Is Indian self predominantly interdependent?Journal of Indian Psychology, 13, 16–29 .
37.
MISRA, G. , & MOHANTY, A.K. (2000). Consequences of poverty and disadvantage: A review of Indian studies. In A.K. Mohanty & G. Misra (Eds), Psychology of poverty and disadvantage(pp. 121–148). New Delhi: Concept .
38.
MISRA, G. , SRIVASTAVA, A.K. , & GUPTA, S. (1999). The cultural construction of childhood in India: Some observations . Indian Psychological Abstracts and Reviews, 6, 191–218 .
39.
MUNEKATA, H. , & NINOMIYA, K. (1985). The development of prosocial moral judgments . Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology, 33, 157–164 .
40.
MUSSEN, P. , & EISENBERG-BERG, N. (1977). Caring, sharing and helping: The roots of prosocial behavior in children. San Francisco: Freeman .
41.
NEKI, J.S. (1976). An examination of the cultural relativism of dependence as dynamic of social and therapeutic relationships . British Journal of Medical Psychology, 49, 1–10 .
42.
PIAGET, J. (1932/1965). The moral judgment of the child. New York: Free Press .
43.
RADKE-YARROW, M. , ZAHN-WAXLER, C. , & CHAPMAN, M. (1983). Prosocial dispositions and behavior. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Manual of child psychology. Vol. 4: Socialization, personality, and social development(pp. 469–545) ( E.M. Hetherington , Ed.). New York: Wiley .
44.
ROGOFF, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context. New York: Oxford University Press .
45.
ROLAND, A. (1988). In search of self in India and Japan: Toward a cross-cultural psychology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
46.
SAMPSON, E.E. (1987). A critical constructionist view of personhood. In H.J. Stam , T.B. Rogers , & K.J. Gergen (Eds), The analysis of psychological theory: Metapsychological perspectives(pp. 4–59). New York: Harper & Row .
47.
SARASWATHI, T.S. , & PAI, S. (1997). Socialization in the Indian context. In H.S.R. Kao & D. Sinha (Eds), Asian perspectives on psychology(pp. 74–92). New Delhi: Sage .
48.
SHWEDER, R.A. (1991). Thinking through cultures: Expeditions in cultural psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press .
49.
SHWEDER, R.A. (2003). Why do men barbecue? Recipes for cultural psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press .
50.
SINHA, D. (1984). Community as target: A new perspective to research on prosocial behavior. In E. Staub , D. Bar-Tal , J. Karylowski , & J. Reykowski (Eds), Development and maintenance of prosocial behavior(pp. 445–455). New York: Plenum Press .
51.
SINHA, D. (1988a). The family scenario of a developing country and its implications for mental health: The case of India. In P.R. Dasen , J.W. Berry , & N. Sartonous (Eds), Health and cross-cultural psychology: Towards application(pp. 48–70). Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
52.
SINHA, D. (1988b). Basic Indian values and behaviour dispositions in the context of national development: An appraisal. In D. Sinha & H.S.R. Kao (Eds), Social values and development: Asian perspectives(pp. 31–55). New Delhi: Sage .
53.
SINHA, D. , & KAO, H.S.R. (1997). The journey to the east: An introduction. In H.S.R. Kao & D. Sinha (Eds), Asian perspectives on psychology(pp. 9–22). New Delhi: Sage .
54.
TAPPAN, M.B. (1997). Language, culture, and moral development: A Vygotskian perspective . Developmental Review, 17, 78–100 .
55.
TIETJEN, A. (1986). Prosocial reasoning among children and adults in a Papua New Guinea society . Developmental Psychology, 22, 861–868 .
56.
UGUREL-SEMIN, R. (1952). Moral behavior and moral judgment of children . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47, 463–474 .
57.
VYGOTSKY, L. (1934/1986). Thought and language( A. Kozulin , Ed. & Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press .
58.
WERTSCH, J. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press .
