This study explored the meaning of the notion of "intelligence" as understood and used by the lay people in India. In a multi-centric study, participants (n=1,885), varying along the dimensions of ecological context (rural/urban), schooling, age and gender, from five localities, volunteered. Responding to an open-ended question, participants described the characteristics of an intelligent person. Analysis revealed four major dimensions of intelligence: cognitive competence, social competence, competence in action, and emotional competence. Intelligence was conceptualised in terms of socio-affective regulation of one's conduct. It was considered an important attribute contributing to the well-being of the individual and the society. Results have implications for expanding the concept and assessment of intelligence to make it more inclusive encompassing the perspectives from non-Western cultures.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Anandalakshmy, S. (1994). The girl child and the family: An action research study. New Delhi: Department of Women and Child Development, Government of India.
2.
Agarwal, R., & Misra, G. (1986). A factor analytic study achievement goals and means: An Indian view. International Journal of Psychology , 21, 717-737.
3.
Azuma, H., & Kashiwagi, K. (1987). Description for an intelligent person: A Japanese study. Japanese Psychological Research, 29, 17-28.
4.
Butterworth, G. (1994). Infant intelligence. In J. Khalfa (Ed.), What is intelligence? (pp. 49-71). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
5.
Cantor, N., & Harlow, R. (1994). Social intelligence and personality: Flexible life task pursuit. In R.J. Sternberg, & P. Ruzgis (Eds.), Personality and intelligence (pp. 137-168). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
6.
Chen, M.J. (1994). Chinese and Australian concepts of intelligence . Psychology and Developing Societies, 6, 101-117.
7.
Cole, M. (1990). Cognitive development and formal schooling: The evidence from cross-cultural research. In L.C. Moll (Ed.), Vygotsky and education (pp. 89-110). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
8.
Cole, M., & Cole, S.R. (1993). The development of children. New York: Scientific American Books.
9.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper Collins.
10.
D'Andrade, R. (1987). A folk model of the mind. In D. Holland, & N. Quinn (Eds.), Cultural models in language and thought (pp. 112-148). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
11.
Das, J.P., & Thapa, K. (2000). Intelligence and cognitive processes. In J. Pandey (Ed.), Psychology in India revisited: Developments in the discipline, Vol. 1, Physiological foundation and human cognition. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
12.
Dash, U.N., & Mishra, H.C. (1989). Testing for the effects of schooling on memory in an eco-cultural setting. Psychology and Developing Societies , 1, 153-163.
13.
Dash, U.N., & Mohanty, M.M. (1996). Schooling and cognition. Bhubaneswar : Center of Advanced Studies in Psychology, Utkal University .
14.
Durojaiye, M.O.A. (1993). Indigenous psychology in Africa. In U. Kim, & J.W. Berry (Eds.), Indigenous psychologies: Research and experience in cultural context (pp. 211-220). Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
15.
Erikson, E.H. (1963). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
16.
Goodnow, J.J. (1988). Parent's ideas, actions, and feelings: Models and methods from developmental and social psychology. Child Development, 59, 286-320.
17.
Greenfield, P.M. (1998). The cultural evolution of IQ. In U. Neisser (Ed.), The rising curve: Long term gains in IQ and related measures (pp. 81-123). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
18.
Haksar, A.N.D. (June 17 2000). The secular face of Sanskrit. The Times of India (p. 14). New Delhi.
19.
Harkness, S., & Super, C.M. (1993). The developmental niche: Implications for children's literacy development. In L. Eldering, & P. Leseman (Eds.), Early intervention and culture: Preparation for literacy, The interface between theory and practice (pp. 115-132). Paris: UNESCO.
20.
Harkness, S., Super, C., & Keeper, C. (1992). Culture and ethnicity. In M.D. Levine, & A.C. Crocker (Eds.), Developmental-behavioral pediatrics (pp. 103-108). Philadelphia: Sounders.
21.
India: Year 2000 assessment-education for all (2000). New Delhi: NIEPA and Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India.
22.
Kulkarni, S.S., & Puhan, B.N. (1988). Psychological assessment: Its present and future trends. In J. Pandey (Ed.), Psychology in India: The state-of-the-art, Vol. 1 (pp. 19-92). New Delhi: Sage Publications.
23.
Lapierre, D. (1986). The city of joy. London: Arrow Books Ltd.
24.
Mahadevan, T.K. (1978). Priyamvada: The Hindu perception of excellence . The Illustrated Weekly of India, 37, 20-26.
25.
Mayer, J.D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey, & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence (pp. 3-31). New York: Basic Books.
26.
Miller, J.G. (1996). A cultural-psychology perspective on intelligence . In R.J. Sternberg, & E.L. Grigorenko (Eds.), Intelligence, heredity, and environment (pp. 269-302). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
27.
Misra, G. (2000). Consequences of poverty and disadvantage: A review of Indian studies. In A.K. Mohanty, & G. Misra (Eds.), Psychology of poverty and disadvantage (pp. 121-148). New Delhi: Concept Publications.
28.
Misra, G., & Agarwal, R. (1985). The meaning of achievement: Implications for a cross-cultural theory of achievement motivation. In I.R. Lagunes, & Y.H. Poortinga (Eds.), From a different perspective: Studies of behavior across cultures (pp. 220-226). Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger.
29.
Misra, G., & Gergen, K.G. (1993). On the place of culture in psychological science . International Journal of Psychology, 28, 225-243.
30.
Misra, G., & Giri, R.S. (1994). Is Indian self predominantly interdependent? Journal of Indian Psychology, 13, 16-29.
31.
Misra, G., Sahoo, F.M., & Puhan, B.N. (1997). Culture bias in testing: India. European Review of Applied Psychology, 47, 309-316.
32.
Misra, G., Srivastava, A.K., & Gupta, S. (1999). The cultural construction of childhood in India: Some observations. Indian Prychological Abstracts and Reviews , 6, 191-218.
33.
Moscovici, S. (1984). The phenomenon of social representations. In F.M. Farr, & S. Moscovici (Eds.), Social representations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
34.
Mukherjee, B.N. (1997). Educational assessment and evaluation. In Fifth survey of educational research, 1988-92: Trend reports, Vol. 1 (pp. 670-702). New Delhi: NCERT.
35.
Mundy-Castle, A.C. (1974). Social and technological intelligence in western and non-western cultures. Universitas, 4, 46-52.
36.
Raina, M.K., & Srivastava, A.K. (2000). India's search for excellence: A clash of ancient, colonial, and contemporary influences. Roeper Review, 22, 102-107.
37.
Ranganathananda, S. (1978). The shaping of our future. The Illustrated Weekly of India, 37,29-32.
38.
Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking. New York: Oxford University Press.
39.
Rogoff, B., & Chavajay, P. (1995). What's has become of research on the cultural basis of cognitive development? American Psychologist, 50, 859-877.
40.
Scheibel, A. (1996). Introduction to symposium on the evolution of intelligence. Los Angeles: Center for the Study of Evolution and Origin of Life, University of California.
41.
Schurmans, M., & Dasen, P.R. (1992). Social representations of intelligence: Cote d'Ivoire and Switzerland. In M. Cranbach, W. Doise, & G. Mugny (Eds.), Social representations and social basis ofknowledge (pp. 144-152). Lewiston, New York: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers .
42.
Serpell, R. (1982). Measures of perception, skills, and intelligence . In W.W. Hartup (Ed.), Review of child development research, Vol. 6 (pp. 392-440). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
43.
Sigel, I.E. (Ed.) (1995). Parental belief systems. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
44.
Sinha, D. (1983). Human assessment in the Indian context. In S.H. Irvine, & J.W. Berry (Eds.), Human assessment and cultural factors (pp. 17-34). New York: Plenum Press.
45.
Sinha, J.B.P., & Kanungo, R.N. (1997). Context sensitivity and belongingness in Indian organizational behavior. International Journal of Psychology , 32, 93-105.
46.
Srinivas, M.N. (1966). Social change in modern India. Mumbai: Allied Publishers.
47.
Srivastava, A.K., & Misra, G. (1999a). An Indian perspective on understanding intelligence . In W.J. Lonner, D.L. Dinnel, D.K. Forgays, & S.A. Hayes (Eds.), Merging past, present, and future in cross-cultural psychology (pp. 159-172). Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets and Zeitlinger.
48.
Srivastava, A.K., & Misra, G. (1999b). Social representation of intelligence in the Indian folk tradition: An analysis of Hindi proverbs. Journal of Indian Psychology, 17, 23-38.
49.
Srivastava, A.K., & Misra, G. (2000). Culture and conceptualization of intelligence . New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training.
50.
Srivastava, A.K., Tripathi, A.M., & Misra, G. (1996). The status of intelligence testing in India: A preliminary analysis. Indian Educational Review, 31, 1-11.
51.
Sternberg, R.J. (1990). Wisdom: Its nature, origins and development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
52.
Sternberg, R.J. (1997). The concept of intelligence and its role in lifelong learning and success. American Psychologist, 52, 1030-1037.
53.
Sternberg, R.J., & Lubart, T.I. (1996). Investing in creativity. American Psychologist, 51,677-688.
54.
Sternberg, R.J., Conway, B.E., KETRON,J.L., & Bernstein, M. (1981). People's conceptions of intelligence. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology , 41, 37-55.
55.
Sternberg, R.J., Wagner, R.K., Williams, W.M., & Horvath, J.A. (1995). Testing common sense. American Psychologist, 50, 912-927.
56.
Takahashi, M., & Bordia, P. (2000). The concept of wisdom: A cross-cultural comparison . International Journal of Psychology, 35, 1-9.
57.
Valsiner, J. (1994). Comparative-cultural and constructivist perspectives . Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
58.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
59.
Wertsch, J.V. (1991). Voices of the mind. Cambridge : Harvard University Press.
60.
White, R.W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence . Psychological Review, 66, 297-333.
61.
Wink, P., & Helson, R. (1997). Practical and transcendental wisdom: Their nature and some longitudinal findings. Journal of Adult Development , 4, 1-15.
62.
Wober, M. (1974). Towards an understanding of the Ugandan concept of intelligence. In J.W. Berry, & P.R. Dasen (Eds.), Culture and cognition (pp. 261-280). London: Methuen .
