During his life, Dr James E Reeves was a national figure in the US. His work included multiple professional publications, civic and professional leadership positions, and the drafting of a landmark law that confirmed the right of states to regulate the medical profession. While much of Reeves’ work supported the successful struggle of 19th century regular physicians to gain control of the practice of medicine, he challenged his colleagues when their self-interests conflicted with his perception of the public good. He was frequently lauded for this work by physicians and the public but he also made professional enemies. Perhaps for this reason, his considerable accomplishments were forgotten after his death. His story reminds us of the difficult contradiction that exists within the regulation of medicine, guarding the public’s welfare while protecting the interests of medical professionals. It also reminds us that history may temporarily overlook those who fight our difficult battles.
Funeral of Dr. Reeves. The Daily Times (Chattanooga TN), 6 January 1896, p.2.
2.
Dr Reeves Dying. Wheeling Register, 20 December 1895, vol. 33, p.8.
3.
Atkinson WB. A biographical dictionary of contemporary American physicians and surgeons. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: DG Brinton, 1880. It is particularly surprising that Reeves is not mentioned in this compendium because many of his fellow Wheeling physicians are included.
4.
Kelly HA. A cyclopedia of American medical biography – comprising the lives of eminent deceased physicians and surgeons from 1610 to 1910. Vol. II. Philadelphia and London: WB Saunders Company, 1912. It should be noted that there was a short mention of Dr Reeves in the 1928 edition of this work; Kelly HA and Burrage WL. Dictionary of American medical biography. New York and London: D Appleton and Company, 1928, pp.1024–1025.
5.
GarrisonFH. An introduction to the history of medicine – with medical chronology, suggestions for study and bibliographic data, 4th ed. Philadelphia and London: WB Saunders Company, 1929.
6.
Documentation of Reeves’ family history was obtained from several sources, including personal correspondence with his great-great-granddaughter, Joan Webb. Where possible, family tree information was supplemented by census and other primary records. Much vital information was also recorded in obituaries cited below and the 1896 article by Wilson in the Transactions of the Medical Society of West Virginia, also cited below.
7.
Cited by Wilson LD. James Edmund Reeves, MD. Transactions of the Medical Society of West Virginia 1896; 29th Annual Session: 1319–1327 (quotation on 1320).
8.
In 1850, Josiah and Nancy Reeves lived in Philippi, Barbour County Virginia (now West Virginia). Census records show a family of six, with four children ranging from ages 7 to 19 years. Ann Reeves was 16 years old. Josiah’s trade was listed as “tailor” and that of his 19-year-old son, Joseph, as “clerk.” Seventh Census of the United States, 1850, Ancestry.com (accessed 12 June 2013).
9.
The 1860 federal census supports Ann Reeves’ view of her father’s wish to instill practical skills in his sons. At that time Josiah and Nancy were still living in Philippi, Virginia. Josiah was 49 years old, with trades of “tailor” and Methodist “minister.” Nancy was 57 and there were a son Thomas and daughter Emily living at home. The trade of 18-year-old Thomas was listed as “apprentice tailor.” Eighth Census of the United States, 1860, Ancestry.com (accessed 12 June 2013).
10.
WilsonLD. James Edmund Reeves, MD. Transactions of the Medical Society of West Virginia1896; 29th Annual Session: 1319–1327.
11.
The US census of 3 September 1850 shows James E Reeves, a 24-year-old single male physician living in Braxton County Virginia. Sutton, Virginia was the county seat of Braxton County. Seventh Census of the United States, 1850, Ancestry.com (accessed 12 June 2013).
12.
WilsonLD. James Edmund Reeves, MD. Transactions of the Medical Society of West Virginia1896; 29th Annual Session: 1322–1322.
13.
Family sourcesWilsonLD. James Edmund Reeves, MD. Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of West Virginia1896; 29th Annual Session: 1324–1324.
14.
The US Census of 14 July, 1860, after the Reeves family moved to Fairmont, confirms a family of six, including the four children. Eighth Census of the United States, 1860, Ancestry.com (accessed 13 June 2013).
15.
ReevesJE. A practical treatise on enteric fever; its diagnosis and treatment: being an analysis of one hundred thirty consecutive cases, derived from private practice, and embracing a partial history of the disease in Virginia, Philadelphia: JB Lippincott & Co, 1859.
16.
Unknown. Book review. The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal1859; 61: 84–84.
17.
Much personal information about Ann Reeves Jarvis can be found in KendallNF. Mother’s day – a history of its founding and its founder, Grafton: D Grant Smith, 1937.
18.
That James assisted Ann’s work is mentioned in several places, and seems quite likely. However there is no primary source for this. See a brief biography of Ann Marie Reeves Jarvis at the WV Archives, http://www.wvculture.org/history/jarvis.html (accessed 14 June 2013) and Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Jarvis (accessed 14 June 2013).
19.
Requirements for the MD degree from the University of Pennsylvania (America’s oldest medical college) in 1860 included: two years of study under a private practitioner, attendance of two terms of lectures, preparation and defence of a thesis, passing of all required examinations, and age of 21 years. Norwood WF. Medical Education in the United States before the Civil War. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1944, p.404. Records from the University of Pennsylvania confirm that James Reeves of Philippi, Virginia received the MD degree in 1860, http://www.archives.upenn.edu/people/students/med/az1806to1852/medmatrledgers1806_1860.html (accessed 17 June 2013).
20.
US census records show James, Lydia, and their children living in Fairmont on July 14. Eighth Census of the United States, 1860, Ancestry.com (accessed 14 June 2013).
21.
The Battle of Philippi was essentially a rout, with few casualties on either side. Information about the beginning of the Civil War is well known, but there is an interesting, in-depth view of the evolving situation in Philippi in Maxwell H. The history of Barbour County West Virginia – from its earliest exploration and settlement to the present time. Morgantown: The ACME Publishing Company, 1899, pp.245–275.
WilsonLD. James Edmund Reeves, MD. Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of West Virginia1896; 29th Annual Session: 1324–1324.
24.
Reeves was elected a member of the AMA at the 1866 meeting in Baltimore. Transactions of the American Medical Association. Vol. 17. Philadelphia: American Medical Association, 1866, p.23.
25.
West Virginia State Medical Association. Women’s Auxiliary. The founders of the medical society of West Virginia. Charleston: WVSMA Women’s Auxiliary, 1936, p.9.
26.
West Virginia State Medical Association. Women’s Auxiliary. The founders of the medical society of West Virginia, Charleston: WVSMA Women’s Auxiliary, 1936, pp. 11–15.
27.
West Virginia State Medical Association. Women’s Auxiliary. Past presidents of the West Virginia State Medical Association 1867–1942, Charleston: WVSMA Women’s Auxiliary, 1942, pp. 29–30.
28.
In later years, Reeves described his role in the third person: “Witnessing the situation, a physician of the city busied himself about the matter and prepared an ordinance, exerted his influence to have that ordinance passed by the Council, establishing a permanent health office, with a salary of $800 a year for the health officer.” Reeves JE. Statement of sanitary progress in West Virginia. Record of proceedings and discussions at the tenth annual meeting. Public Health Papers and Reports1882; 8: 231–233.
ReevesJE. The physical and medical topography, including vital, manufacturing and other statistics of the city of Wheeling, Wheeling: Daily Register Book and Job Office, 1870.
31.
ReevesJE. The health and wealth of the city of Wheeling – including its physical and medical topography; also general remarks on the natural resources of West Virginia, Baltimore: The Sun Book and Job Office, 1871.
32.
Unknown. Book review. The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal1871; 84: 199–199.
33.
Franklin quoted the aphorism, “Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise” in the Almanack which he published from 1732 to 1758. This work was quite well known to 19th century writers. The phrase may be attributed, however to an earlier English writer, James Clark, in 1639 (Parœmiologia Anglo-Latina). Oxford encyclopedia of children’s literature at, http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195146561.001.0001/acref-9780195146561-e-2487 (accessed 20 June 2013).
34.
Smith S. Historical sketch of the American Public Health Association. Public health papers and reports V. Boston: Houghton Mifflin and Company – The Riverside Press, Cambridge, 1880, p.xvii, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/journals/487/#pubhealthpap (accessed 27 June 2013).
35.
Mary’s death is noted in West Virginia Deaths Index 1853–1873, www.ancestry.com (accessed 21 June 2013). His marriage to Frances Starrett is cited in Wilson LD. James Edmund Reeves, MD. Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of West Virginia 1896; 29th Annual Session: 1324.
36.
A copy of The West Virginia Medical Student is available for free download at, books.google.com (accessed 21 June 2013). On page 404 of the journal he described how his son handled the printing on a home press.
37.
ReevesJE. Salutatory. The West Virginia Medical Student1875; 1: 24–24.
38.
Inquirer. To the editor. The West Virginia Medical Student1875; 1: 63–64.
39.
ReevesJE. Editorial. The West Virginia Medical Student1875; 1: 69–69.
40.
Reeves’ distaste for physician self-promotion was firmly rooted in contemporary standards. The Code of Medical Ethics adopted by the American Medical Association in 1847 stated “It is derogatory to the dignity of the profession, to resort to public advertisements or private cards or handbills,… to boast of cures and remedies, to adduce certificates of skill and success, or to perform any other similar acts. These are the ordinary practices of empirics, and are highly reprehensible in a regular physician.” Bell J. American Medical Association, Code of Medical Ethics. Chicago: American Medical Association Press, 1847, p.98.
41.
Dr JC Hupp was also a socially prominent physician, but he was frequently mentioned in the Wheeling Register as administering “skillful medical treatment” for injuries (cf. 30 January 1878 and 6 July 1878). This would have been reprehensible to Reeves. In 1879–1880, a public dispute between Reeves and Hupp inside the State Medical Association appeared to be decided in Reeves’ favor (Register, 21 May 1879, 29 June 1880). In 1878, Judge RH Cochrane blistered Hupp in a newspaper article, calling for him to “Come down from your exalted chronic vanity…”. Register, 31 July 1878.
42.
JepsonSL. The origin and propagation of typhoid fever. The West Virginia Medical Student1875; 1: 149–158.
43.
PutnamCP. Salicylic acid in acute rheumatism. The West Virginia Medical Student1875; 1: 165–167.
44.
DawsonWW. Surgical clinic at Good Samaritan Hospital. The West Virginia Medical Student1875; 1: 253–253.
45.
Records from the Wheeling Register document an extremely active role as city councilman, from 1877 to 1881, and Democratic Party manager from 1875. These records are available via, http://www.genealogybank.com (accessed 31 March 2014).
46.
A correspondent’s views. To the editor of the Register. Wheeling Register, 9 January 1882, vol. 18, p.4.
47.
AtkinsonWB. The physicians and surgeons of the United States, Philadelphia: Charles Robson, 1878, pp. 3–3.
48.
AtkinsonWB. A biographical dictionary of contemporary American physicians and surgeons, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: DG Brinton, 1880, pp. 3–3.
49.
SmithS. Historical sketch of the American Public Health Association. Public health papers and reports V, Boston: Houghton Mifflin and Company – The Riverside Press, Cambridge, 1880, pp. vii–xii.
50.
StarrP. The social transformation of American medicine – the rise of a sovereign profession and the making of a vast industry, New York: Basic Books, Inc, 1982, pp. 102–110.
51.
GarnettAYP. (Presidential address) How to limit the number of medical colleges, and lessen the crowded condition of the medical profession. Journal of the American Medical Association1888; 10: 722–723.
52.
MillardPH. The legal restriction of medical practice in the United States. Journal of the American Medical Association1889; 13: 470–475.
53.
JepsonSL. Editorial – a bit of history. West Virginia Medical Journal1915; 10: 172–173.
54.
DunglisonRJMarcyHO. Report on laws regulating the practice of medicine in the United States and Canada. Journal of the American Medical Association1883; 1: 505–508.
55.
Commentary by Dr Rauch. Proceedings at the tenth annual meeting. Public Health Papers and Reports1882; 8: 234–234.
56.
Unknown. Wheeling Register, 1 August 1881, vol. 19, p.4; 2 August 1881, vol. 19, p.4.
57.
West Virginia State Medical Association. Women’s auxiliary, the founders of the Medical Society of West Virginia, Charleston: WVSMA Women’s Auxiliary, 1936.
58.
West Virginia State Medical Association. Women’s auxiliary, past presidents of the West Virginia State Medical Association 1867–1942, Charleston: WVSMA Women’s Auxiliary, 1942.
59.
A complete description of the early phases of the Dent case is presented by Reeves in The Fourth Annual Report of the Secretary of the State Board of Health of West Virginia. Wheeling: Charles H. Taney, State Printer, 1884, pp.23–39.
60.
ReidJP. An American judge – Marmaduke Dent of West Virginia, New York: New York University Press, 1968.
The importance and reach of the Dent decision are discussed by (among others) Starr P. The social transformation of American medicine – the rise of a sovereign profession and the making of a vast industry. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1982, p.106; Cohen MH and Nelson H. Licensure of complementary and alternative practitioners. American Medical Association Journal of Ethics 2011; 13: 374–378. At virtualmentor.org (accessed 9 August 2013).
63.
Unknown. Transactions of the Ninth Annual Session report of the Treasurer. Public Health Papers and Reports 1881; 7: 441–442.
64.
The latest news of the going and coming of people. Wheeling Register, 25 January 1882, vol. 18, p.4.
65.
Unknown. Record of proceedings and discussions at the tenth annual meeting. Public Health Papers and Reports1882; 8: 187–326.
66.
Unknown. Record of proceedings and discussions at the eleventh annual meeting. Public Health Papers and Reports1883; 9: 395–395.
67.
ReevesJE. The eminent domain of sanitary science, and the usefulness of state boards of health in guarding the public welfare. Journal of the American Medical Association1883; 1: 612–618.
68.
Unknown. Record of proceedings and discussions at the twelfth annual meeting. Public Health Papers and Reports1883; 10: 339, 440–339, 440.
69.
West Virginia honored – By the presidency of the American Public Health Association. Wheeling Register, 19 October 1884, vol. 22, p.4.
70.
Dr. Reeves resigns the secretaryship of the State Board of Health. Wheeling Register, 24 February 1885, vol. 22, p.4.
71.
Dr. Reeves’ resignation – a high medical authority praises his work. Wheeling Register, 4 March 1885, vol. 22, p.4.
72.
For an engaging description of a hard-working 19th century physician who relocated to reduce his workload, see Peitzman SJ. ‘I am their physician’ – Dr Owen J Wister of Germantown and his too many patients. Bulletin of the History of Medicine2009; 83: 245–270.
73.
Going south: Dr. James E. Reeves to remove to Chattanooga Thursday – An outline of the twenty years he has spent in Wheeling – His fame as a microscopist and sanitary expert. Wheeling Register, 3 January 1888, vol. 25, p.4.
74.
Minutes of the ninth annual meeting. Proceedings of the American Society of Microscopists 1886; 7: 204, 216.
75.
WilsonLD. James Edmund Reeves, MD. Transactions of the Medical Society of West Virginia1896; 29th Annual Session: 1323–1323.
76.
The Wheeling Register article of 3 January, 1888 (op. cit.) particularly noted his fame as a microscopist, stating “Many improvements in apparatus are due to Dr. Reeves, and his researches in certain fields have been of the most valuable nature to science.”.
77.
Dr. James E. Reeves arrested. Wheeling Register, 29 August 1893, vol. 29, p.4.
78.
Other than information presented at Reeves’ trial, there is little public information on Dr William Riley Amick (1847–1900) of Cincinnati. There is a brief biography here, http://www.findagrave.com (accessed 12 November 2013).
79.
For a thorough discussion of fraudulent marketing practices used by 19th century patent medicine promoters in the US see Young JH. The toadstool millionaires, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961.
80.
The justification of Dr. Reeves. Wheeling Register, 13 July 1895, vol. 33, p.5.
81.
Hamilton JB. Medicine and cricket. Journal of the American Medical Association1895; 25: 78–78.
82.
Gould GM. Professional indifference to professional issues. Medical News1895; 66: 735–736.
83.
ReevesJE. A hand-book of medical microscopy for students and general practitioners, including chapters on bacteriology, neoplasms, and urinary examinations, Philadelphia: P Blakiston, Son & Co, 1894.
84.
Unknown. Book Review. A Handbook of Medical Microscopy. Journal of the American Medical Association 1894; 23: 516–517.
85.
This sales figure is from Reeves himself in a letter to his daughter, Annie, dated 30 March, 1895. Kindly supplied by Joan Webb.
86.
KingLS. Medical education: the decade of massive change. Journal of the American Medical Association1984; 251: 219–224.
87.
Reeves JE, Ferguson ED. Report of the committee on nominations. Official report of the proceedings in general session, 1895, of the forty-sixth annual meeting. Journal of the American Medical Association 1895; 24: 765.
88.
Dr. James E. Reeves – Death of the eminent physician yesterday afternoon. The Sunday Times (Chattanooga TN), 5 January 1896, p.5.
89.
Dr Reeves dying. Wheeling Register, 20 December 1895, vol. 33, p.8.
90.
Funeral of Dr. Reeves. The Daily Times (Chattanooga TN), 6 January 1896, p.2.
91.
Taken to West Virginia – Body of Dr. James E. Reeves was shipped last night. The Chattanooga News, 6 January 1896, p.4.
92.
The late Dr. Reeves. Wheeling Register, 8 January 1896, vol. 33, p.8.
93.
Kendall NF. Mother’s day – a history of its founding and its founder. Grafton: D Grant Smith, 1937, pp.9–10. It is unclear whether Mrs Jarvis was known as Ann or Anna. Census reports from her and her father’s family invariably list her as Ann Marie yet her contemporaries clearly called her Anna. The confusion is compounded by the later role of her daughter, also called Anna Jarvis, as well as James Reeves’ daughter, Anne Elizabeth. Here James’ sister is referred to as Ann Reeves Jarvis.
94.
KendallNF. Mother’s day – a history of its founding and its founder, Grafton: D Grant Smith, 1937, pp. 16–16.
