John Aitken attended the University of Edinburgh between 1763 and 1769 but did not graduate MD. He gained the membership (i.e. fellowship) of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh in 1770, and was for two sessions Senior President of the Royal Medical Society. Between 1771 and 1790 he published numerous books and pamphlets on surgery, medicine, midwifery, anatomy and physiology. As a surgeon at the Royal Infirmary, from 1779, he lectured on most subjects in the medical curriculum. John Struthers was particularly scathing of Aitken's scholarship, and this article attempts to restore Aitken's reputation as a scholar and probably one of the first of the extra-academical lecturers, who taught both anatomy and surgery in Edinburgh from 1779 until his death in 1790.
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References
1.
AitkenGMHJohnM.D. In: The Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1842: vol. I, pp. 574–5. GMH is believed to have been George Murray Humphry.
2.
JFP [J F Payne]. AitkinJohnM.D. (d. 1790). Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963–4: vol. I, pp. 206–7. This item was written in about 1884–5, for the first edition of this publication.
3.
PowerD'A, ed. Plarr's Lives of the Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of England (in 2 vols). Bristol: John Wright & Sons; London: Simpkin, Marshall Ltd, 1930: vol. I, pp. 581–4. See also the anonymous entry for Humphry, Sir George Murray (1820–1896). Dictionary of National Biography, Supplement 22. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964–5: pp. 883–5.
4.
Various contemporary reviews, all entirely complimentary, are included in the Preface to the second, enlarged and amended edition of Aitken's Essays and Cases in Surgery: The Whole Illustrated with Copper-plates. London: C Dilly; Edinburgh: W Creech, 1775. For example, a review of the first edition (1771) of the book, published in the Monthly Review, stated: “This work is evidently the production of a man of science and ingenuity, and contains many hints worthy of the attention of practitioners”.
5.
Entry for Barclay, JohnM.D. In: ChambersR, ed. A Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen (in 4 vols). Glasgow & Edinburgh: Blackie & Son; Dublin: W Curry, jun. & Co.; London: Simpkin & Marshall, 1835: vol. I, pp. 135–11, at p. 139.
6.
StruthersJ. John Bell. In: Historical Sketch of the Edinburgh Anatomical School. Edinburgh: Maclachlan & Stewart, 1867: pp. 37–44, at p. 39.
7.
Matriculation Albums of the University of Edinburgh, 1761–73: p. 12.
8.
Matriculation Albums of the University of Edinburgh: p. 84.
9.
Matriculation Albums of the University of Edinburgh: p. 30.
10.
Aitken first petitioned the College to indicate that he was desirous of being admitted a member of the Corporation on 11 April 1770. He was then styled “Mr John Aitken Surgeon”. He was duly examined, and after paying the Treasurer £1000 Scots, or £83.33 sterling (£12 Scots was equivalent to £1 sterling), as his “upsett”, he was received as a “freeman Surgeon apothecary” on 30 May 1770. See College of Surgeons Minutes, 1738–70: p. 514. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the “upset” was a term used in both the north of England and in Scotland. It was the fee paid upon setting up in business as a master or becoming a freeman in a trade, the term being first used in 1463/4. His “upsett” would therefore have been the current equivalent of £5158, as £1 sterling in 1770 was equivalent in May 2002 to £61.90 (information from Enquiries Office, Bank of England). This was clearly a considerable amount of money and it should not be surprising that the number of individuals who submitted themselves for examination by the College, leading to their fellowship diploma, was quite small. The total number of fellows elected during each decade between 1760 and 1849 is given in parentheses: 1760–9 (6); 1770–9 (16); 1780–9 (17); 1790–9 (18); 1800–9 (19); 1810–19 (29); 1820–9 (41); 1830–9 (23); 1840–9 (19). See List of Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh from the Year 1581 to 31st December 1873. Edinburgh: George Robb, 1874. Mr Thomas Anderson, who was received as a “freeman Surgeon apothecary” on the same day as Aitken, was also required to pay £1000 Scots, with the clerks' and officers' fees, while Messrs Cheyne and Gibson were each required to pay only £260 Scots. It is possible that neither Aitken nor Anderson had previously served their apprenticeship for the freedom, while Cheyne and Gibson had done so. According to the laws and regulations of the College, outlined in the College minutes of 12 September 1793: “The entry money of such as have not served an apprenticeship for the freedom shall be £166-13-4 Sterling”. See College of Surgeons Minutes, 1771–93: p. 447. The impression is gained that, over the 23-year period, the fees for the latter group had increased considerably.
11.
UrbanS. The Gentlemen's Magazine: and Historical Chronicle1790;60(ii):866. This brief item reads as follows under “DEATHS 22 September 1790”: “At Edinburgh, John Aitken, M.D. fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons, and lecturer on the practice of physick, anatomy, surgery, chemistry, &c.”.
12.
A will by John Aitken has not been located in the National Archives of Scotland.
13.
General List of the Members of the Medical Society of Edinburgh. Edinburgh: Hay, Gall, & Co., 1823: p. 15.
14.
GrayJ. History of the Royal Medical Society 1737–1937.Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1952: pp. 315–16.
15.
AitkenJ. Medical Improvement: An Address Read to the Medical Society. Edinburgh: John Bell, 1777.
16.
A Collection of the Public General Statutes, passed in the Second and Third Year of the Reign of His Majesty King William the Fourth: Being the Second Session of the Tenth Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Cap. LXXV. An Act for Regulating Schools of Anatomy. 1st August 1832. London: George Eyre and Andrew Spottiswoode, 1832: pp. 713–18. Many pamphlets proposing alternative arrangements to those then in force were published over the years before the Anatomy Act of 1832 was eventually implemented. See, for example, Letter to the Right Honourable The Lord Advocate, proposing a means of procuring (By Act of Parliament) subjects for the instruction of medical students, whereby the present barbarous system of raising the dead will be effectually prevented; the celebrity of our medical and surgical schools promoted; a permanent fund be acquired for the burial of the poor; and the admission to hospitals be extended to all; whilst the demands for supporting charity work-houses will be diminished, and the state and morals of all classes ameliorated. Edinburgh: A Aikman, jun., J Carfrae, 1822.
17.
A similar situation arose in 1823, when the editor of the Phrenological Journal wished to publish the contents of a debate held in the Society and contacted members who had taken part in the debate. For full details, see KaufmanMH. The Edinburgh phrenological debate of 1823 held in the Royal Medical Society. Journal of Neurolinguistics1998;11:377–89.
18.
HolmesJDEarly years of the Medical Society of Edinburgh. University of Edinburgh Journal1968;23:333–40.
19.
Gilbert (later Sir Gilbert) Blane was appointed in 1780 Physician to the Fleet under Admiral Rodney, and saw service in Gibraltar and in the West Indies. In his Observations on the Diseases of Seamen, he emphasized that most troops and seamen died of conditions unrelated to enemy action and later he was instrumental in introducing the use of lemon juice in the Navy, particularly in 1795, when he was appointed Commissioner for Sick and Hurt Seamen. This had the immediate effect of banishing scurvy from the Navy. In 1793 he was appointed physician to St Thomas's Hospital and was created a baronet in 1812. See BlaneG. Observations on the Diseases of Seamen (3rd edn). London: Murray & Highley, 1799. The first edition was published in 1785, the second in 1789, and the third edition is a much enlarged version. See KaufmanMH. The Regius Chair of Military Surgery in the University of Edinburgh − 1806–55. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2003: pp. 9–46.
20.
GrayJ (op. cit. ref. 14): pp. 40–2. The full version of the address was published at that time. See: BlaneG. Address to the Medical Society of Students at Edinburgh, upon laying the Foundation of their Hall, 21st April 1775. Anonymous pamphlet (1775), but address delivered by Gilbert Blane; no publisher cited.
21.
GrayJ (op. cit. ref. 14): p. 43.
22.
JenkinsonJ. Scottish Medical Societies 1731–1939: Their History and Records. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1993: pp. 209–10. The National Library of Scotland has searched through all of its records, including its early manuscript catalogues, and can find no additional information on this society.
23.
GrayJ (op. cit. ref. 14): pp. 52–6.
24.
GrayJ (op. cit. ref. 14): p. 77.
25.
AitkenJ. Outlines of the Theory and Cure of Fever, Upon Plain and Rational Principles. London: T Cadell; Edinburgh: Gordon and Murray, C Elliot, W Creech, J Bell, and Balfour and Sons. The volume is undated, but the Preface indicates Edinburgh, February 1781.
26.
This proposal was entered in the College minutes of 2 February 1784. See College of Surgeons Minutes, 1771–93: p. 243.
27.
College of Surgeons Minutes: 13 November 1784, p. 255.
28.
The use of the term “servant” here would appear to be synonymous with the term “apprentice”, as William Quillen was, at the same meeting, appointed a “servant” to Colin Lauder.
29.
AitkenJ (op. cit. ref. 4).
30.
HumphryGM (op. cit. ref. 1).
31.
WattR. Bibliotheca Britannica, or, a General Index to British and Foreign Literature. Edinburgh: A Constable and Co., 1824: column 12t.
32.
AitkenJ. Essays on Several Important Subjects in Surgery: Chiefly on the Nature and Cure of Fractures of the Long Bones of the Extremities, Particularly those of the Thigh and Leg, whether Simple or Compound; for which a new method of Retention is Proposed. London: E and C Dilly; Edinburgh: A Kincaid and W Creech, J Balfour, W Drummond, and J Bell, 1771. This was dedicated to Alexander Monro secundus.
33.
AitkenJ (op. cit. ref. 4).
34.
AitkenJ. Conspectus Rei Chirurgicae, Morbos, Operationes, Instrumenta et Administrationem; Systematicae Amplectens. Edinburgh: Neill and Sons, 1777. The style of this work (of 56 pages) is very abbreviated, with headings only, and possibly in the form of lecture notes suitable for students.
35.
AitkenJ (op. cit. ref. 15).
36.
AitkenJ. Systematic Elements of the Theory and Practice of Surgery. Edinburgh: W Gordon and W Creech; London: J Murray, 1779. This is a substantial work, of 574 pages, including an index, in two parts: I, Chirurgical nosology (pp. 13–400); II, Chirurgical operation (pp.401–537). Much of the text is presented in the form of a detailed dictionary, where many of the terms are defined in great detail, much in Latin.
37.
AitkenJ (op. cit. ref. 25).
38.
AitkenJ. Elements on the Theory and Practice of Physic and Surgery (in 2 vols). London: Charles Dilly, 1783. This has a portrait of the author (reproduced here as Figure 1) as the frontispiece to volume I. These volumes are dedicated to His Royal Highness George Augustus, Prince of Wales, &c.
39.
This probably refers to AitkenJ. Principles of Midwifery, or Puerperal Medicine (2nd edn). Edinburgh: sold at the Edinburgh Lying-in Hospital, for the benefit of that charity (undated, but first edition perhaps 1784; the second edition is from the Edinburgh Anatomical Theatre, 3 February 1785).
40.
This probably refers to Aitken J. Principles of Osteology, or the Anatomy of the Human Bones. Interspersed with Chirurgical Remarks, and Illustrated with Copper-plate engravings, Drawn from nature, or Copied from the Works of the Greatest Masters. For the Use of Students. Edinburgh, 1785. Cited by RussellKF. British Anatomy 1525–1800. A Bibliography. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1963: p. 37.
41.
AitkenJ. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (in 2 vols). London: J Murray, 1786. Again, volume I (only) possesses a frontispiece showing an engraving of the author reproduced in Figure 1.
42.
AitkenJ. Essays on Fractures and Luxations. London: T Cadell, J Murray, 1790. This volume is dedicated to Lord Gardenston, said to have been one of the Supreme Judges of Scotland.
43.
AitkenJ. System of Anatomical Tables with Explanations (in 2 vols), 1786. Cited by RussellKF (op. cit. ref. 40): p. 37.
44.
AitkenJ. An Address to the Chirurgo-Obstetrical Society; Delivered at Their First Meeting. Edinburgh: J McKenzie, 1786. This is a 15-page pamphlet.
45.
Comrie File of Edinburgh M.D. Graduates 1705–1866. Edinburgh University Library, Special Collections section.
46.
Manuscript list of St Andrews University MD graduates supplied by Miss Susan Rowe, Archivist, St Andrews University Library.
47.
AndersonPJFasti Academiae Mariscallanae Aberdonensis. Selections from the Records of the Marischal College and University 1593–1860. Vol II. Officers, Graduates, and Alumni. Aberdeen: printed for the New Spalding Club, 1898. See also AndersonPJ. Officers and Graduates of University & King's College Aberdeen MVD-MDCCCLX.Aberdeen: New Spalding Club, 1893.
48.
AddisonWIA Roll of the Graduates of the University of Glasgow from 31 December, 1727 to 31 December, 1897. With short biographical notes. Glasgow: James MacLehose & Sons, 1898.
49.
A Catalogue of Graduates who have proceeded to degrees in the University of Dublin, from the earliest recorded commencements to July 1866: with supplement to December 16 1868. Dublin: Hodges, Smith, & Foster, 1869.
50.
Aitken stated that he lectured in the “Edinburgh Anatomical Theatre” in his Principles of Midwifery (op. cit. ref. 39) and his Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (op. cit. ref. 41).
51.
CresswellCHThe Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh: Historical Notes from 1505 to 1905.Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1926.
52.
CathcartCWSome of the older schools of anatomy connected with the Royal College of Surgeons, Edinburgh. Edinburgh Medical Journal1882;27:769–781, at p. 778.
53.
Number 4 Surgeons' Square was where Dr Peter Handyside subsequently opened his first class of anatomy in 1833;he remained there for five or six years before he succeeded Mr John Lizars as lecturer on surgery at Number 1 Surgeons' Square. See CathcartCW (op. cit. ref. 52): p. 778.
54.
According to Struthers, Thomas Aitkin also lectured on physiology and on materia medica where Dr Murray, the chemist, taught. See BarclayStruthers J. In: Historical Sketch of the Edinburgh Anatomical School. Edinburgh: Maclachlan & Stewart, 1867: pp. 56–70, at footnote 1, p. 65.
55.
For details, see ComrieJD. History of Scottish Medicine (2nd edn, in 2 vols). London: Baillière, Tindall & Cox, 1932: vol. II, p. 768.
56.
SebastianA. A Dictionary of the History of Medicine. New York: Parthenon Publishing, 2000: p. 26.
