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References
1.
1 Tonya Langford, `Things Fall Apart: State Failure and the Politics of Intervention', International Studies Review , vol. 1, no. 1, May 1999, pp. 59-79.
2.
2 `Complex contingency operations' are defined as `peace operations such as the peace accord implementation operation conducted by NATO in Bosnia (1995-present) and the humanitarian intervention in northern Iraq called Operation Provide Comfort (1991); and foreign humanitarian assistance operations, such as Operation Support Hope in Central Africa (1994) and Operation Sea Angel in Bangladesh (1991). `The Clinton Administration's Policy on Managing Complex Contingency Operations, Presidential Decision Directive-56', US Government White Paper, May 1997.
3.
3 See US Army, Field Manual 100-23, Peace Operations , Headquarters, Department of the Army, Washington DC, 1994; Joint Chiefs of Staff, Interagency Coordination During Joint Operations , Joint Publication 3-08, 2 volumes, Washington DC, 1996.
4.
4 See, generally, Mark Bowden, Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern War (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1999).
5.
5 See also US Army College Peacekeeping Institute, `Success in Peacekeeping, United Nations Mission in Haiti: The Military Perspective ' (Carlisle Barracks, PA: The Institute, 1996).
6.
6 Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Strategy and Threat Reduction, Handbook for Interagency Management of Complex Contingency Operations , draft working paper, Washington DC, 12 January 1998, p. 4.
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7 See, for example, Handbook for Interagency Management of Complex Contingency Operations (note 6 above).
8.
8 See Arthur E. Dewey & Walter S. Clarke, The Comprehensive Campaign Plan: A Humanitarian/Political/Military Partnership in `Total Asset' Planning for Complex Humanitarian Emergencies (Washington DC: Congressional Hunger Center, 1 May 1997); Arthur E. Dewey & Margaret Zeigler, Comprehensive Engagement in Post-Cold War Complex Contingencies: A `Comprehensive Campaign Plan' Approach for Ex-Yugoslavia and Similar Complex Contingency Operations (Washington DC: Congressional Hunger Center, March 1998).
9.
9 This was the basic limitation of UNITAF after February 1993. Especially pronounced was the military's difficulty in setting up a police force in Somalia without the other components - laws and courts - of a judicial system.
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10 The training session entitled `Interagency Training and Education Program for Complex Contingency Operations' was the result of efforts by the NSC staff, State Department, and Defense Department.
11.
11 Mark R. Walsh & Michael J. Harwood, `Complex Emergencies: Under New Management', Parameters , vol. 28, no. 4, Winter 1998-99, pp. 39-50, on p. 49.
12.
12 See UN Security Council Presidential Statement, S/PRST/1998/3, 13 February 1998; State Department Briefing, `Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright Press Conference with Croatian President Franjo Tudjman', Federal News Service, 30 August 1998.
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13 Personal communication, 15 March 1999.
14.
14 See Walsh & Harwood (note 11 above), pp. 49-50.
15.
15 Handbook for Interagency Management of Complex Contingency Operations (see note 6 above), p. 7.
16.
16 Permanent Joint Headquarters, J7 Division, Peace Support Operations , Joint Warfare Publication 3-50 (Middlesex: Northwood, 1998).
17.
17 United Nations, `Statement by the President of the Security Council', S/PRST/1998/38, 29 December 1998.
18.
18 These issues are further developed in Jarat Chopra, ed., The Politics of Peace-Maintenance (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1998); and Jarat Chopra, Peace-Maintenance: The Evolution of International Political Authority (London: Routledge, 1999).
19.
19 US Government, `Clinton Administration Policy on Reforming Multilateral Peace Operations, Presidential Decision Directive-25', The White House, May 1994.