European Insecurities:

1 See Coit D. Blacker, Ashton B. Carter, Warren Christopher, David A. Hamburg, and William J. Perry, `NATO After Madrid: Looking to the Future'. Report of a conference co-sponsored by Stanford University and Harvard University (19-20 September 1997), p.3. See also Warren Christopher & William J. Perry, `NATO's True Mission', The New York Times, 21 October, 1997, p. A27.

2 See Ole Wæver, Barry Buzan, Morten Kelstrup & Pierre Lemaitre, `Societal Security and European Security', in Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993), pp. 185-199.

3 For a discussion of transnational threats that demand a redefinition of security, see Richard A. Matthew & George Shambaugh, `Sex, Drugs and Heavy Metal: Transnational Threats and National Vulnerabilities', Security Dialogue, vol. 29, no. 2, June 1998, pp. 161-175

4 See Georgios Kostakis & Dimitris Bourantonis, `Innovations in Peace-keeping: The Case of Albania', and Fatmir Mema, `Did Albania Really Need Operation “Alba”?', pp. 49-58 and 59-62, resp., Security Dialogue, vol. 29, no. 1, March 1998; see also Ettore Greco, `New Trends in Peace-keeping: The Experience of Operation Alba', Security Dialogue, vol. 29, no. 2, June 1998, pp. 201-212. The most immediate threat to Italy was the flow of migrants, some 17,000 from January-September 1997, thus encouraging military action to re-establish order.

5 Coit Blacker et al., `NATO after Madrid: Looking to the Future'..., p. 3. Emphasis in the original.

6 See Ole Wæver, `Securitization and Desecuritization', in Ronnie D. Lipschutz, ed., On Security (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), pp. 46-86; Jyrki Käkönen, ed., Green Security or Militarized Environment (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1994).

7 See Daniel Deudney, `The Case Against Linking Environmental Degradation and National Security', Millennium, vol.19, no. 3, 1990, pp. 461-476. For redefining security debates, see issues of Environmental Change and Security Project Report published by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, DC. See http://escp.si.edu/

8 1997 World Population Data Sheet (Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau, 1997).

9 While their claim is disputed, some Kurdish groups identify the increased Turkish expulsions of Kurds to Europe as retaliation for the EU's continued unwillingness to admit Turkey as a member. See National Liberation Front of Kurdistan. Press Statement on Refugee Crisis, Rome, 7 January 1998.

10 Particularly high levels of unemployment are frequently found among minority and immigrant communities. The January 1998 protests and riots in these communities in Paris were attributed to these high levels.

11 For a 1995 comprehensive assessment of regional environmental conditions and twelve `prominent' environmental problems for the region, see European Environment Agency, Europe's Environment: The Dobris Assessment (Copenhagen: European Environment Agency, 1995). See also Dennis Pirages, `The European Region'. Paper presented at Environmental Flash Points Workshop, Consequences of Environmental Change: Political, Economic, Social (Reston, VA: Director of Central Intelligence Environmental Center, 12-14 November 1997).

12 See Barbara Connolly & Martin List, `Nuclear Safety in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union', in Robert O. Keohane & Marc A. Levy, eds., Institutions for Environmental Aid (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996), pp. 233-279.

13 See Thomas Nilsen, `Leningrad Power Station', Bellona Factsheet No. 52 (Oslo: The Bellona Foundation, 1997).

14 U.S. National Intelligence Council, `The Environmental Outlook in Central and Eastern Europe', ICA 96-08D (December 1997).

15 U.S. National Intelligence Council, `The Environmental Outlook in Central and Eastern Europe'..., p. 15.

16 See Jonathan Klavens & Anthony Zamparutti, Foreign Direct Investment and Environment in Central and Eastern Europe, (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1995).

17 U.S. National Intelligence Council, `The Environmental Outlook in Central and Eastern Europe'..., p. 16.

18 See Irene Lyons Murphy, The Danube: A River Basin in Transition (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1997).

19 See Brit Flöistad, Fish and Foreign Policy: Norway's Fisheries Policy Towards Other Countries in the Barents Sea, the Norwegian Sea, and the North Sea, Occasional Paper 37 (Honolulu, HI: The Law of the Sea Institute, 1991).

20 See Marvin Soroos, `The Turbot War: Resolution of an International Fishery Dispute', in Nils Petter Gleditsch, ed., Conflict and the Environment (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1997), pp. 235-252.

21 NATO's `Third Dimension' of scientific exchange does promote environmental cooperation across old dividing lines. The activities of the NATO Science Committee and the Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS) should be expanded to a broader set of issues with a deeper set of interactions.

22 See Oran Young, `Institutional Linkages in International Society: Polar Perspectives', Global Governance, vol. 2, no. 1, 1996, pp. 1-24.

23 See Stacy D. VanDeveer & Geoffrey D. Dabelko, `(Re)Defining Security Around the Baltic'. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC, August 1997.

24 For discussion of redefining security rhetoric, see VanDeveer & Dabelko, `(Re)Defining Security Around the Baltic'.... For discussion of Danish foreign aid, see Per Fischer, `Danish International Assistance: The Environment and Disaster Relief Facility (EDRF)', in Bertel Heurlin & Hans Mouritzen, eds, Danish Foreign Policy Yearbook 1997 (Copenhagen: Danish Institute of International Affairs, 1997), pp. 101-122.

25 See Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Atomsikkerhet og miljø: Om Handlingsplanen for atomsaker [Nuclear Safety and the Environment: About the Plan of Action on Nuclear Safety Issues], May 1997.