Environmental Security in the South China Sea

1 Mark Valencia, China and the South China Sea Disputes, Adelphi Paper No. 298 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1995), p. 6.

2 Chi-Kin Lo, China's Policy Towards Territorial Disputes (London & New York: Routledge, 1989).

3 See Eric Hyer, `The South China Sea Disputes: Implications of China's Earlier Territorial Settlements', Pacific Affairs, vol. 68, no. 1, 1995, pp. 34-54; Rex Li, `China and Asia-Pacific Security in the Post-Cold War Era', Security Dialogue, vol. 26, no. 3, 1995, pp. 331-344; and Esmond Smith, Jr., `China's Aspirations in the Spratly Islands', Contemporary Southeast Asia, vol. 16, no. 3, 1994, pp. 274-294.

4 Barry Buzan, People, States and Fear: An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War Era, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1991), p. 368.

5 Seyom Brown, `World Interests and the Changing Dimensions of Security', in Michael Klare & Daniel Thomas, eds., World Security: Challenges for a New Century (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), p. 10.

6 Dietrich Fischer, Nonmilitary Aspects of Security: A Systems Approach (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1993).

7 See Lester Brown, Redefining National Security, Worldwatch Paper No. 14 (Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, 1977); Jessica Tuchman Mathews, `Redefining Security', Foreign Affairs, vol. 68, no. 2, 1989, pp. 162-177; and Norman Myers, `Environmental Security', Foreign Policy, no. 74, 1989, pp. 23-41.

8 Daniel Deudney, `The Case against Linking Environmental Degradation and National Security', Millennium, vol. 19, no. 3, 1990, pp. 461-476.

9 Levy warns that any research strategy wishing to generate an accurate assessment of security problems by examining only the environmental connections is bound to fail. Understanding regional or global conflicts requires an awareness of the constellation of factors that promote or impede the outbreak of violence. See Marc Levy, `Is the Environment a National Security Issue?', International Security, vol. 20, no. 2, 1995, pp. 35-62.

10 Thomas Homer-Dixon, `Global Environmental Change and International Security', in David Dewitt, David Haglund & John Kirton, eds., Building a New Global Order: Emerging Trends in International Security (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 185-228.

11 Joseph Camilleri, `The Asia-Pacific in the Post-Hegemonic World', in Andrew Mack & John Ravenhill, eds., Pacific Cooperation: Building Economic and Security Regimes in the Asia-Pacific Region (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995), p. 189.

12 Donald Weatherbee, `The South China Sea: From Zone of Conflict to Zone of Peace?', in Lawrence Grinter & Young Whan Kihl, eds., East Asian Conflict Zones: Prospects for Regional Stability and Deescalation (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987), pp. 123-148.

13 Chen Jie, `China's Spratly Policy: With Special Reference to the Philippines and Malaysia', Asian Survey, vol. 34, no. 10, 1994, pp. 893-903.

14 Marwyn Samuels, Contest for the South China Sea (New York & London: Methuen, 1982), p. 43.

15 See Jorge Coquia, `Philippine Position on the South China Sea Issues', in Aileen San Pablo-Baviera, ed., The South China Sea Disputes: Philippine Perspectives (Quezon City: Philippine-China Development Resource Center, 1992), pp. 52-53; and Gerardo Martin Valero, Spratly Archipelago: Is the Question of Sovereignty Still Relevant? (Quezon City: IILS, UP Law Center, 1993).

16 Valencia, China and the South China Sea Disputes, p. 8.

17 Desmond Ball, `Arms and Affluence: Military Acquisitions in the Asia-Pacific Region', International Security, vol. 18, no. 3, 1993/94, pp. 78-112. For example, it is believed that as China's remarkable growth rates continue, its defense budget will increase proportionally. See Joseph Nye, Jr., `The Case for Deep Engagement', Foreign Affairs, vol. 74, no. 4, 1995, pp. 90-102.

18 You Ji, `A Test Case for China's Defense and Foreign Policies', Contemporary Southeast Asia, vol. 16, no. 4, 1995, pp. 375-403.

19 See Denny Roy, `Hegemon on the Horizon?: China's Threat to East Asian Security', International Security, vol. 19, no. 1, 1994, pp. 149-168; and J. N. Mak & B. A. Hamzah, `The External Maritime Dimension of ASEAN Security', Journal of Strategic Studies, vol. 18, no. 3, 1995, pp. 123-146.

20 Lee Lai To, `ASEAN and the South China Sea Conflicts', Pacific Review, vol. 8, no. 3, 1995, p. 539.

21 Annual Report of the ASEAN Standing Committee, 1994-1995 (Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat, 1995), p. 2.

22 Chen Jie, `China's Spratly Policy', pp. 896-897.

23 `Joint Statement of the Workshop on Managing Potential Conflicts in the South China Sea', Bandung, 15-18 July 1991, The Philippines and the South China Sea Islands: Overview and Documents (Pasay: CIRSS-Foreign Service Institute, 1993).

24 Harry Harding, `Cooperative Security in the Asia-Pacific Region', in Janne Nolan, ed., Global Engagement: Cooperation and Security in the 21st Century (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1994), pp. 419-446.

25 World Bank, World Development Report 1995 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 170-171.

26 Mamdouh Salameh, `China, Oil and the Risk of Regional Conflict', Survival, vol. 37, no. 4, 1995-96, p. 135.

27 Corazon Siddayao, The Off-Shore Petroleum Resources of Southeast Asia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978; and Mark Valencia, ed., The South China Sea: Hydrocarbon Potential and Possibilities of Joint Development (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981).

28 Smith, Jr., `China's Aspirations in the Spratly Islands', p. 281.

29 Wang Cunxin, `Ecological Characteristics of the Fish Fauna of the South China Sea', in Brian Morton, ed., The Marine Biology of the South China Sea (Hongkong: Hongkong University Press, 1993), vol. 1, pp. 77-118.

30 Philippine Star, 19 June 1995.

31 Oran Young, International Governance: Protecting the Environment in a Stateless Society (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), p. 109.

32 William Onorato, `Joint Development of Seabed Hydrocarbon Resources: An Overview of Precedents in the North Sea', Energy, vol. 6, no. 11, 1981, pp. 1311-1324.

33 Choon-Ho Park, `Joint Development of Mineral Resources in Disputed Waters: The Case of Japan and South Korea in the East China Sea', Energy, vol. 6, no. 11, 1981, pp. 1335-1354.

34 Michael Leifer, `The Maritime Regime and Regional Security in East Asia', Pacific Review, vol. 4, no. 2, 1991, p. 133.

35 Ernst Frankel, Ocean Environmental Management (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995), p. 71.

36 This coincides with the proposal for a Spratly Authority. See Mark Valencia, `Spratly Solution Still at Sea', Pacific Review, vol. 6, no. 2, 1993, pp. 155-170.

37 See Gerald Blake, ed., Maritime Boundaries (London & New York: Routledge, 1994).

38 Salameh, `China, Oil and the Risk of Regional Conflict', p. 141.

39 Kent Calder, `Asia's Empty Tank', Foreign Affairs, vol. 75, no. 2, 1996, p. 56.

40 See Thomas Homer-Dixon, `Environmental Scarcities and Violent Conflict: Evidence from Cases', International Security, vol. 19, no. 1, 1994, pp. 5-40.