The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia

1 Relatively little conceptual and empirical research has been done on conflict prevention, often also referred to as `preventive diplomacy'. See Michael Lund, Preventing Violent Conflicts: A Strategy for Preventive Diplomacy (Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace Press, 1996); Gabriel Munuera, Preventing Armed Conflict in Europe: Lessons from Recent Experience (Paris: Institute for Security Studies of Western European Union, June 1994); Werner Bauwens and Luc Reychlers, eds., The Art of Conflict Prevention (London: Brassey's, 1994).

2 In 1960 UN Secretary-General Dag Hammerskjöld was the first to introduce the concept of preventive diplomacy.

3 `Republic of Macedonia' and `Macedonia' will be used in this article interchangeably instead of `the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia'.

4 Republic of Macedonia, Statistical Office of Macedonia, Macedonia Basic Economic Data (Skopje, 1994), p. 40. Also, interview on the 1994 census with Svetlana Antonovska, Director, Statistical Office, May 1995, Skopje.

5 Even ethnic Albanian cabinet members will quote this number, for example in my interviews with Ilajaz Sabriu, the former minister of labour and social policy, and Eshref Aliu, the former minister of culture, May 1995, Skopje. Many Albanians will give their number as 800,000 rather than the official 443,000.

6 See G. Munuera, Preventing Armed Conflict..., footnote 104. Interview with Shaqir Aliti, Mayor of Tetovo, July 1995, Tetovo. No exact numbers can be obtained.

7 The Albanian-language abbreviation, which stands for Partia Për Prosperitet Demokratik Shqiptarëve, is used here. The party is referred to in Macedonian as the PDP-A.

8 Interviews by author with Arbën Xhaferi, March 1996 and 30 May 1996, Tetovo.

9 Cited in Munuera, Preventing Conflict in Europe..., footnote 122, p. 51.

10 Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 9 June 1992.

11 Cited in Hans-Joachim Hoppe, `Makedonien', in Gerhard Wetting, ed., Sicherheits-und Bedrohungsvorstellungen in Südosteuropa (Cologne: BIOST, May 1995), p. 38.

12 Interview by author with Macedonian Foreign Minister Ljubomir Frčkoski, 10 June 1996, Skopje.

13 Neue Züricher Zeitung, 31 October 1991.

14 Interview by author with President Gligorov, 6 June 1996, Skopje.

15 ICFY source.

16 Discussed in Alice Ackermann & Antonio Pala, `From Peacekeeping to Preventive Deployment: A Study of the United Nations in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia', European Security, vol. 5, no. 1 (Spring 1996), pp. 83-97. Based on interviews with General Juha Engström, Assistant Secretary-General Henryk Sokalski, and Dr. Abidoun Williams, Civil Affairs, May and August 1995, and with Sokalski and Dr. Vera Mehta, March and May 1996, in Skopje, as well as site visits to the UNPREDEP headquarters in Skopje and several Finnish, Danish, and American UN observation posts.

17 The OSCE deliberately named its mission the `OSCE Spillover Mission to Skopje' to avoid the controversial name Macedonia. Interview with General Giorgio Blais, Deputy Head of Mission, 4 May 1995, Skopje. See also Blais, `Experiences with CSCE Monitoring in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia', in Jürgen Altmann et al., eds., Verification After the Cold War: Broadening the Process (Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1994), p. 302.

18 OSCE, High Commissioner on National Minorities, `List of HCNM Mission Travels', The Hague, 1996.

19 OSCE, High Commissioner on National Minorities, `Recommendations to Macedonia, Including Reply', HC/REF/3/1995.

20 US State Department source, interviewed by author, October 1995, Washington, DC.

21 US State Department, `Summary of the Interim Accord Between Greece and FYROM', September 1995.

22 Interview with Eran Fraenkel, Executive Director, Search for Common Ground in Macedonia, 10 May 1995, March and May 1996, Skopje. Interview with David Shorr, Washington Director, Ethnic Conflict Resolution Project, Search for Common Ground, 6 March 1995, Washington, DC.

23 Interview by author with Violeta Beška, Director, Ethnic Conflict Resolution Project, Skopje, 8 May 1995, March and June 1996, Skopje. Violeta Petroska Beška, `Non-governmental Organizations, Early Warning, and Preventive Diplomacy: The Case of Macedonia'. Unpublished paper, 1995.

24 On the process of reconciliation, see Alice Ackermann, `Reconciliation as a Peace-Building Process in Postwar Europe: The Franco-German Case', Peace and Change, vol. 19, no. 3 (July 1994), pp. 229-250.

25 See also Kumar Rupesinghe, `Towards a Policy Framework for Preventive Diplomacy' (From our readers), Security Dialogue, vol. 26, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 112-113.

26 See also Ted R. Gurr, `Transforming Ethno-political Conflicts: Exit, Autonomy or Access,' in Kumar Rupesinghe, ed., Conflict Transformation (New York: St. Martin's, 1995), pp. 1-30.

27 Elizabeth Williamson, `Macedonia, Next Door to a War, Uses an Ingenious Spirit to Somehow Survive', The Wall Street Journal, 27 November 1995.