Collective Security or Collective Disaster?

1 `Nine Years of Doe's Rule: Africa Watch Assesses the Record', Africa Watch, 11 April 1989.

2 For a detailed study of Liberia's political history, see M. Lowenkopf, Politics in Liberia (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1976); Harold D. Nelson, Liberia: A Country Study (Washington, DC: American University Foreign Area Studies, 1984); Bill Berkeley, Liberia: A Promise Betrayed (New York: Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, 1986); J. Gus Liebenow, Liberia: The Quest for Democracy (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987); Amos Sawyer, `Effective Immediately: Dictatorship in Liberia, 1980-1986' (Bremen: Liberia Working Group), no. 5, 1987) and Amos Sawyer, The Emergence of Autocracy in Liberia: Tragedy and Challenge (San Francisco, CA: Institute of Contemporary Studies, 1992).

3 `A Decade of Coups', West Africa, 15-21 January 1990, p. 44; `A Decade of Doe, West Africa, 16-22 April 1990, p. 612.

4 See Hiram Ruiz, Uprooted Liberians: Casualties of a Brutal War (Washington, DC: US Committee for Refugees, 1992), p. 5; Bill Berkeley, `Liberia: Between Repression and Slaughter', The Atlantic, December 1992, pp. 52-64.

5 `Gathering Gloom', West Africa, 26 October-1 November 1992, p. 1822.

6 See `Peace Draws Closer', West Africa, 2-8 August 1993, p. 1356.

7 `Liberia: After Akosombo', Africa Confidential, 4 November 1994, p. 2; UN Information Centre, `News Summary', 5 January 1995.

8 `Liberia: Listening to Washington', Africa Confidential, 20 November 1992, vol. 33, no. 23, pp. 6-7.

9 For a comprehensive reading on foreign involvement in the Liberian conflict, see `Views From Abidjan', West Africa, 22-28 January 1990, p. 93; `US Military Advisers', West Africa, 12-18 February 1990, p. 246; `Call for US Withdrawal', West Africa, 19-25 February 1990, p. 294; `Gaddafi Pledges Peace', West Africa, 3-9 December 1990, p. 2964; `Forgotten Country', West Africa, 4-10 February 1991, p. 139; `Taylor's Ambition', West Africa, 18-24 March 1991, p. 401; `Enfant Terrible', West Africa, 4-10 May 1992, p. 756; and `Liberians Train Mercenaries in Burkina Faso', The Guardian (London), 11 December 1991, p. 10.

10 See Hiram Ruiz, Uprooted Liberians..., pp. 6-7; `Liberia: Bloody', The Economist, 1 September 1990, p. 59, and `Liberia's Killing Goes On', The Economist, 15 September 1990, p. 102.

11 See World Health Organization, WHO Newsletter: Liberia, vol. 1 no. 1, April 1994, p. 3.

12 `Liberia: Listening to Washington', Africa Confidential, 20 November 1992.

13 For details on Liberia's international maritime role, see Robert Kappel, `Liberia's International Shipping Strategy - The Role of Flags of Convenience and the Repercussions for the National Development', Liberia Forum, vol. 2, no. 2, 1986.

14 See Robert F. Zimmerman, Dollars, Diplomacy and Dependency: Dilemmas of U.S. Economic Aid (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1993), pp. 120-124.

15 `Doe's Last Stand', Africa Report, July/August 1990, vol. 35, pp. 47-49; `Liberia: An African Tragedy', Africa Report, November/December 1990, vol. 35, pp. 13-16.

16 `Prince Johnson: A Soldier's Soldier', West Africa, 6-12 April 1990, p. 2230 and `Charles Taylor: Small Soldier', p. 2231.

17 See T.W. Parker, `Operation Sharp Edge', Proceedings/Naval Review, May 1991, pp. 103-106.

18 `No Change in US Policy', West Africa, 23-29 November 1992, p. 2010.

19 `A Double-Edged Role', West Africa, 12-18 March 1990, p. 407.

20 `Jackson Visit', West Africa, 28 May-3 June 1990, p. 880; `Carter's Ultimatum', 15-21 April 1991, p. 573; `Cohen's Plea', 2-8 September 1991, p. 1469 and `The Carter Initiative 25 November-1 December 1991', p. 1966.

21 `Call for UN Intervention', West Africa, 19-25 November 1990, p. 2875.

22 See David Wippman, `Enforcing the Peace: ECOWAS and the Liberian Civil War', in Lori F. Damrosch, ed., Enforcing Restraint: Collective Intervention in Internal Conflicts (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1993).

23 Security Council, S/RES/788 (1992), 19th November 1992, Resolution 788 (1992): Adopted by the Security Council at its 3138th Meeting, on 19 November 1992. See also `UN Steps In', West Africa, 30 November-6 December 1992, p. 2052; `UN Approves Force to Impose Ban on Liberian Factions', The Guardian (London), p. 14.

24 `Fierce Fighting', West Africa, 2-8 November 1992, p. 1884 and `The Siege of Monrovia', 23-29 November, 1992, p. 2008; `Liberia: Lapsing Into War Again', Beijing Review, 30 November-6 December 1992, vol. 35, pp. 12-13.

25 Security Council, S/25402, 12 March 1993: Report of the Secretary General on Liberia.

26 `UN Adopts Resolution 813', West Africa, 12-18 April, 1993, p. 608.

27 Security Council, S/RES/856 (1993), 10th August 1993: Resolution 856 (1993), Adopted by the Security Council at its 3263rd Meeting, on 10 August 1993; and Security Council, S/RES/866 (1993), 22 September 1993: Resolution 866 (1993), Adopted by the Security Council at its 3281st Meeting, on 22 September 1993.

28 UN General Assembly, A/48/392, 22nd September 1993, 48th Session, Item 101 of the Provisional Agenda `Special Programmes of Economic Assistance': Assistance For the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Liberia: Report of the Secretary General.

29 `United Nations Launches Consolidated Inter-Agency Appeal for Emergency Humanitarian Assistance to Liberia', Department of Information, UN Press Release, IHA/511, 16 December 1993.

30 `Security Council Approves Dispatch of Advance Military Observers to Liberia to Monitor Ceasefire... Welcomes Secretary General's Decision to Send Technical Team to Evaluate Proposed Establishment of UN Observer Mission in Liberia (UNOMIL)', Security Council, 3263rd Meeting PM Summary, SC/5683, 10 August 1993; `UN Peacekeepers to Monitor Ceasefire, Elections; Coordinate Humanitarian Aid', UN Chronicle, December 1993, p. 52.

31 `Security Council Establishes Observer Mission in Liberia to Assist in Implementation of Cotonou Peace Agreement. Mission to Work in Cooperation with Military Observer Group of ECOWAS', Security Council, 3281st Meeting PM Summary, SC/5704, 22 September 1993.

32 General Assembly, A/48/592, 19th November 1993. Forty-eighth Session, Agenda Item 166: `Financing of the UNOMIL', Report of the Secretary General; and General Assembly, A/48/827, 23rd December 1993. Forty-eighth Session, Agenda Item 166: `Financing of UNOMIL', Report of the Fifth Committee.

33 `Extension of UNOMIL's Mandate', UN Brief, Public Information Division, UNOMIL, no. 18, 29 April 1994; `UN Mandate Renewed', West Africa, 16-22 May 1994, p. 872.

34 For more on this, see `Secret Agenda for Liberia', New African, December 1992, p. 16 and `UN Taking Sides in Liberia', November 1993, p. 16.

35 See Thomas F. Homer-Dixon, `Environmental Scarcities and Violent Conflict', International Security, vol. 19, no. 1, 1994, pp. 5-40; James Mayall, `Nationalism and International Security After the Cold War', Survival, Spring 1992, pp. 19-35.

36 See Christopher Greenwood, `Is There a Right of Humanitarian Intervention?', The World Today, vol. 49, no. 2, February 1993, pp. 34-40; David Fisher, `The Ethics of Intervention' Survival vol. 36, no. 1, Spring 1994, pp. 51-59.

37 See Tom Farer, `A Paradigm of Legitimate Intervention', in Lori F. Damrosch, Enforcing Restraint..., p. 336.

38 See Adam Roberts, `The United Nations and International Security', Survival, vol. 35, no. 2, Summer 1993, p. 3-30.

39 For general reading, see Alan James, Peacekeeping in International Politics (London: Macmillan, 1990); William J. Durch and Barry M. Blechman, Keeping the Peace: The United Nations in the Emerging World Order (The Henry L. Stimson Center, 1992); Charles Dobbie, `A Concept for Post-Cold War Peacekeeping', Survival, vol. 36, no. 3, Autumn 1994, pp. 121-48.

40 Work on this subject is still very limited. See Margaret Vogt, ed., The Liberian Crisis and ECOMOG: A Bold Attempt at Regional Peacekeeping (Lagos: Gabumo Publishing Co., 1992); Abiodun Williams, `Regional Peacekeeping: ECOWAS and the Liberian Civil War', in David D. Newson, ed., The Diplomatic Record, 1990-1991 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 213-231; William O'Neill, `Liberia: An Avoidable Tragedy', Current History, May 1993, pp. 213-217; and Stephen P. Riley, `Intervention in Liberia: Too Little, Too Partisan', The World Today, vol. 49, no. 3, March 1993, pp. 42-43.

41 See Elizabeth Blunt, `Liberia: State of Siege', in From Our Own Correspondent (London: BBC, 1990), pp. 149-152.

42 `ECOWAS Attempts Mediation', West Africa, 16-22 July 1990, p. 2126; `Negotiations Begin', 23-29 July 1990, p. 2170. The members of the Committee are Nigeria, Ghana, Togo, Mali and the Gambia.

43 Final Communique of the Economic Community of West African States First Session of the Community Standing Mediation Committee, Banjul 6-7 August 1990.

44 `Intervention Questioned', West Africa, 16-22 July 1990, p. 2126; `Race against Time', 20-26 August 1990, p. 2314.

45 `Imposing Peace', The Economist, 18 August 1990, p. 53; `Intervention Time', West Africa, 13-19 August 1990, p. 2280; See also Olutunde A. Oladimeji, `Behold, African Peacekeepers', Proceedings/Naval Review, March 1993, pp. 64-66.

46 `ECOMOG's Ecobog', New African, November 1990, p. 19; `Bloody', The Economist, 1 September 1990, p. 59; `Liberia: The Crisis Deepens' West Africa, 3-9 September 1990, p. 2389 and `The Cost of Peace', p. 2390; `Taylor Declares War on ECOMOG', 10-16 September 1990, p. 2452.

47 `The Plot Thickens', West Africa, 17-23 September 1990, p. 2478; `Last Moments of Doe', 15-21 October 1990, p. 2650; Elizabeth Blunt, `The Death of President Doe', in From Our Own Correspondent..., pp. 153-155.

48 Final Communique of ECOWAS First Extraordinary Session of the Authority of Heads of State and Government, Bamako, 27-28 November, 1990; `Towards Peace in Liberia', West Africa, 26 November-2 December 1990, p. 2894; `Peace in Liberia: The Bamako Communique', 10-16 December 1990, p. 3021.

49 Joint Declaration on Cessation of Hostilities and Peaceful Settlement of Conflict, Bamako, Republic of Mali, 28 November 1990; `Ceasefire Signed', West Africa, 3-9 December 1990, p. 2954.

50 `Interim Leaders Emerge', West Africa, 10-16 September 1990, p. 2438.

51 `Right to Intervene' (Mugabe commends ECOMOG), West Africa, 4-10 February 1991, p. 141; `US Praises ECOMOG', 27 January-2 February 1992, p. 160; `US Senate Supports Peace', 6-12 April 1992, p. 600; `US Restates Support', 21-27 December 1992, p. 2208; `Clinton's Liberian Policy', 25-31 January 1993, p. 117.

52 `Problems of Integration', West Africa, 15-21 July 1991, p. 1165; `Searching for Regional Peace', 25-31 May 1992, p. 882; `ECOWAS: A Conducive Political Environment - The Basis for Regional Integration', 27 July -2 August 1992, p. 1259.

53 Protocol on Non-Aggression, Done At Lagos This 22nd Day of April 1978 In Single Original In The English And French Languages Both Texts Being Equally Authentic.

54 Protocol Relating to Mutual Assistance on Defence, A/SP3/5/81, Done at Freetown This 29th Day of May 1981 In Single Original In The English And French Languages Both Texts Being Equally Authentic, chapter II Article 4(b).

55 See `SRSG Welcomes Expanded ECOMOG', UN Brief, Public Information Division, UNOMIL, no. 2, 31 December 1993, p. 1. The decision to undertake further ECOMOG military build-up was informed by Taylor's continued attacks on ECOMOG, the proliferation of warring factions and the need to give the force a more multinational and African outlook. Mali, Senegal, Uganda and Tanzania have all variously contributed troops to ECOMOG, although a proposal for Burkina Faso's participation was rejected.

56 Monrovia interview, August 1994.

57 This view has been challenged by some Nigerian scholars, who interpret the events as an example of Nigeria's enduring desire to play a leading role in inter-African affairs. See Emeka Nwokedi, `Regional Integration and Regional Security: ECOMOG, Nigeria and the Liberian Crisis', Travaux et Documents, no. 35, 1992, Centre d'Etude d'Afrique Noire, Domaine Universitaire, France.

58 `Liberian Rebels Threatened United Assault on Peace Troops', The Guardian (London), 15 February 1991, p. 10; `ECOMOG More Offensive', West Africa, 8-14 October 1990, p. 2630; `The Military Option', 22-28 April 1991, p. 590; `ECOWAS: The Frontier Beckons' 1-7 July 1991, p. 1065.

59 `Taylor under Siege' (ECOMOG joins Johnson), West Africa, 8-14 October 1990, p. 2652; `ECOMOG-ULIMO Pact', 25 November-1 December 1991, p. 1979.

60 `For ECOMOG the Party is Over', New African, December 1992, p. 23; `Peacekeepers Fend Off Liberia Attack', The Guardian (London), 17 October 1992, p. 14; `Nigerian Jets Bomb Rebel Advance on Monrovia', 26 October 1992, p. 11; `Liberian Rebels Fight Peace Force', 2 November 1992, p. 9; `Nigerian Jets Bomb Rebels in Monrovia', 7 November 1992; `ECOWAS Turning Point', West Africa, 10-16 August 1992, p. 1337 and `ECOWAS Bites the Bullet', p. 1340; `Keeping an Uneasy Peace', 31 August - 6 September 1992, p. 1470; `Gathering Gloom', 26 October-1 November 1992, p. 1822 and `ECOMOG Bombs Buchanan'; `Intensified Liberia War Threatens to Engulf Other African Nations' New York Times, 15 November 1992.

61 `US Tries to Blunt Harm of Remark on Liberia Peacekeepers', New York Times, 15 November 1992; `Carter Backs Taylor', West Africa, 21-27 September 1992, p. 1607.

62 `Liberia: The Abidjan Factor', West Africa, 8-14 March 1993, p. 366 and `Bombing Controversy', p. 389; `Uncomic Relief', 17-23 May 1993, p. 811 and `The Relief Game', p. 816; `An Uncivil War', Africa Report, May/June 1993, vol. 38, pp. 56-9; `War or Peace', New African, February 1993, p. 15.

63 `UN Turns Blind Eye to ECOMOG's Atrocities', New African, May 1993, p. 14; `Dilemma of Neutrality', West Africa, 29 March-4 April 1993, p. 503; Africa Watch, Liberia: Waging War to Keep the Peace - The ECOMOG Intervention and Human Rights, vol. 5, no. 6, June 1993; `West African Peacekeepers Take Offensive as Impartiality Remains in Doubt', The Guardian (London), 29 May 1993, p. 15.

64 See Stephen P. Riley, `Intervention in Liberia...', p. 42.

65 `Britain Helps to Turn Logs Into Liberian Rebel Arms', The Guardian (London), 25 June 1991, p. 9.

66 Mr. Trevor Gordon-Somers, former Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General and head of UNOMIL. Interview on the BBC World Service `News Hour' programme, 6 November 1994.

67 See UNDP, Human Development Report (New York: UNDP, 1994), p. 94.

68 Monrovia interview, August 1994.

69 `Liberia: Nigeria Facing Both Ways', Africa Confidential, 24 January 1992, vol. 33 no. 2, p. 1.

70 Monrovia interview, August 1994.

71 `What Did Rawlings Say about Liberia?', Monrovia Daily News, 12 August 1994, p. 2, (excerpts From Acceptance Speech).

72 See also `Rawlings Pledges to End Liberian Crisis', The Inquirer (Monrovia), 8 August 1994, p. 1. In the same speech, Rawlings gave notice that he was considering withdrawing Ghanaian troops by December 1994.

73 The process of revising the ECOWAS Charter to incorporate the mechanisms and modalities of responding to future regional security threats is now under way.