Japan's 1990 Climate Policy under Pressure

1 World Resources 1990-91 (Washington DC: World Resources Institute, 1990) pp. 14-15.

2 The above estimates are based on the nation-based emission criterion reflected in the 1992 Rio Frame-work Convention on Climate Change. For a discussion of two more encompassing criteria of responsibility, see `Japan in the Greenhouse: Responsibilities, Policies and Prospects for Combating Global Warming', EED-Report no. 13, December 1992 (Lysaker, Norway: The Fridtjof Nansen Institute), pp. 26-31.

3 Energy Policies and Programmes of IEA Countries - 1991 Review (Paris: International Energy Agency, 1992), p. II/345.

4 Reported by Takao Tomitate in `Japanese Energy Policy and the International Arena', Oxford Energy Forum, no. 10, August 1992, pp. 8-9.

5 See Margaret A. McKean, Environmental Protest and Citizen Politics in Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981).

6 Cf. Shigeto Shuru & Helmut Weidner, eds. Environmental Policy in Japan (Berlin: Sigma Rainer Bohn Verlag, 1989), pp. 15-42.

7 It has also been argued that the new legislative system was an important factor behind the relocation of many heavy-polluting industries overseas.

8 In real terms, the price of crude oil more than doubled, from USD 2.7 in 1973 to USD 5.9 in 1974.

9 Gunnar Fermann, `UNEF II 1973-1980 - Instrument for Conflict-Resolution', NUPI Report no. 120, 1988 (Oslo: Norwegian Institute for International Affairs).

10 As of 1990, 72% of Japan's oil imports still came from the Middle East.

11 At the end of 1991, the Japanese had stored oil for 142 days' consumption.

12 Energy Policies and Programmes of IEA Countries-1991 Review (Paris: OECD/IEA, 1992), p. II/348.

13 This section is based on interviews with Japanese officials in November 1992. The author also appreciates the research of Miranda A. Schreurs, conveyed in `Japanese Environmental Policy Making and the Protection of the Global Environment: The Cases of Ozone Depletion and Global Warming', (Paper presented at the Japan-Korea Forum, Seoul, Korea, 30 November 1991), and `International Environmental Problems and Japanese Domestic Policy-Making', (Paper presented at the International Environmental Institutions Research Seminar, Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard University, 13 November 1992).

14 This and the following quotes are based on interviews with Japanese officials in November 1992.

15 Impacts and Response Strategies Concerning Climate Change - Interim Report of Sub-Groups on Impacts and Response Strategies (Tokyo: Environment Agency - the Advisory Committee on Climate Change, June 1989).

16 For an elaboration, see Kazuya Fujime, Kenichi Matsui & Tamotsu Onozaki: `An Analysis of the Rapid Growth in Japanese Demand Since 1987', Energy Studies Review, vol. 2, no. 2-3, 1990, pp. 120-32.

17 For a review of studies, see Climate Change Research in Japan (Tokyo: Environment Agency, 1992).

18 Similar ideas are expressed throughout Takashi Inoguchi's book, Japan's International Relations (London: Pinter Publishers, 1991).

19 International Environment Reporter, 3 June 1992, p. 356.

20 Proposal For a Council Directive Introducing a Tax on Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Energy, (Brussels: Commission of the European Community - Com (92) 226 final, 30 June 1992).

21 International Environment Reporter, 16 January 1991, p. 22.

22 For the effect of CO₂ tax on economic growth, see various articles in Akihiro Amano, ed., Global Warming and Economic Growth - Modelling Experience in Japan (Tsukuba: Center for Global Environmental Research - National Institute for Environmental Studies, May 1992).

23 Based on interviews with Japanese officials in November 1992.

24 Another argument, not officially voiced by the sceptics themselves, is MITI's fear that the revenues from an environmental CO₂ tax would be administered by EA and contribute to a reduction of the revenues MITI already collects from existing taxes on energy-use. To the extent that a CO₂ tax succeeded in reducing the growth in overall energy-demand, MITI's revenues from energy taxation would be reduced.

25 Robert Thomson: `Japan Hedges on Carbon Tax', Financial Times, 9 December 1992.

26 International Environment Reporter, 8 May 1991, p. 246.

27 Based on interviews with Japanese officials in November 1992.

28 For an interesting article on the international decline of nuclear power, see `Nuclear Power - Losing its Charm', The Economist, 21 November 1992, pp. 25-32.

29 Hisao Kibune: `Japan's Energy Supply-Demand Outlook for the 21st Century', Energy in Japan, no. 114, March 1992, pp. 31-54; and Toyoaki Ikuta: `Eyes to Look at Energy Policy', Energy in Japan, no. 118, November 1992, pp. 1-10.

30 Kazuya Fuijime, Kenichi Matsui & Tamotsu Onozaki: `An Analysis of the Rapid Growth in Japanese Demand Since 1987', Energy Studies Review, vol. 2, no. 2-3, 1990, p. 130.

31 See Riley E. Dunlap et al., The Health of the Planet Survey (Princeton, NJ: The George H. Gallup International Institute, October 1992).

32 Based on interviews with Japanese officials in November 1992.

33 For a review of studies, see Climate Change Research in Japan (Tokyo: Environment Agency, 1992).

34 International Herald Tribune, 22 April 1993.

35 1990 Action Programme to Arrest Global Warming, 1990 Long-Term Energy Supply-Demand Outlook for the 21st Century, and 1990 MITI Comprehensive Approach to Energy-Environmental Issues.

36 From 1955 to 1970, Japan had an average annual GNP growth of 9.6%. Even during the turbulent 1970s and 80s, Japan maintained an economic growth of 4.5% (1970-90 annual average). See Iasuhiro Muta & Iuko Yano, Japanese Energy - Environmental Policy (Tokyo, June 1992), in Japanese.

37 The Economist, 21-27 November 1992, p. 14.

38 Message from Japan's Prime Minister Miyazawa read at the 1992 Rio Conference.

39 See Michael Mastanduno: `Framing the Japan Problem: The Bush Administration and the Structural Impediments Initiative', International Journal, vol.47, Spring 1992, pp. 235-64.