Food and Agriculture Development Issues:

1 For a fuller analysis, see The World Bank, World Development Report, (Washington, DC, 1992), pp. 30-34, 196.

2 See J. Alexandratos and J. Bruinsma, `World Agricultural Trends to the Year 2000', paper presented at the Symposium of the Internal Agriculture into GATT, Annapolis, Maryland, 19 and 20 August 1988.

3 World Bank, World Development Report, 1992, p. 30.

4 World Bank, World Development Report, 1992, pp. 27-28.

5 See R. Perkins, `Expected Changes in World Cereal Economies Over the Next 25 Years', Paper presented at CIMMYT's 25th Anniversary Commemoration, December 1991.

6 Changes in the composition of food consumption expenditures with the changes in income and the rate of industrialization or urbanization are evidenced from the fact that the shares of cereals, sugar, vegetable oils, vegetables and fruits and animal products in per capita dietary energy supplies in low income developing countries are as follows: 65%, 4.6%, 4.2%, 2.8%, and 8%, respectively. The corresponding shares in moderate/high income developing countries are 52%, 11%, 6.6%, 5.0% and 11%. For a discussion see FAO Fifth World Food Survey (Rome, 1992).

7 L.A. Paulino, `Food in the Third World: Past Trends and Projections to 2000', Research Report no. 52 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1986). J.S. Sharma and P. Yeung, `Livestock Products in the Third World: Past Trends and Projections to 1990 and 2000', Research Report no. 49 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1985).

8 J.S. Sharma, `Cereal Feed Use in the Third World: Past Trends and Projections to 2000', Research Report no. 57 (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1986).

9 The conversion ratio is the ratio between the intake of feed on the one hand, and livestock product, i.e. meat and/or milk, on the other. With an improvement in the conversion ratio a greater amount of livestock product or output is obtained from a given intake of feed. This can happen as a result of improvement, either in the breeding of animals, (through genetic improvement) or in the quality and composition of feed in terms of calorie and protein, consisting of grains, roughage and concentrate feeds.

10 See L.A. Paulino, `Food in the Third World...', 1986.

11 World Bank, World Development Report, 1992, p. 135.

12 Michael Lipton and R. Longhurst, New Seeds and Poor People (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1989).

13 Michael Lipton and R. Paarlberg, The Role of the World Bank in Agricultural Development in the 1990s (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1990).

14 M. Lipton and R. Paarlberg, The Role of the World Bank.

15 See V.W. Ruttan, `The Direction of Agricultural Development in Asia: into the 21st Century', Journal of Asian Economics, vol. 1, no. 2, 1990, pp. 189-203.

16 World Resources Institute, Towards Sustainable Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 92-93.

17 World Bank, World Development Report, 1992, p. 173.

18 There will be considerable regional variation in the projected state of poverty. For example, the percentage of the poor in population as well as the number of absolute poor will increase in Latin America and Africa, but will remain unchanged in Middle East and North Africa. There will be a sharp reduction in poverty (both percentagewise as well as in absolute numbers) in East Asia; there will be a slight increase in the number of absolute poor in South Asia. For further discussion see World Bank, World Development..., 1992, p. 279.

19 Targeted measures are those that are aimed at certain sections of the population, like landless laborers, urban poor, etc.

20 See N. Alexandratos, `World Agricultural in the Next Century: Challenges for Production and Distribution', Paper presented at the Plenary Session of the International Conference of Agricultural Economists, Tokyo, 22-29 August 1992. Also see R. Perkins, `Expected Changes'.

21 Nurul Islam and A. Valdes, GATT: Agriculture and Development (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1990).

22 OECD, `Trade Liberalization: What is at Stake', Policy brief no.5 (Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1992), pp. 10-14.

23 The reasons for trade liberalization are various; this is not always a part of the `conditionalities' involved in negotiations for financial help from the external donor agencies. In many cases they are part of the interim policy adjustment resulting from a rethinking on economic policies and the role of the state, including trade and exchange restrictions. In the aftermath of debt crisis, a decline in private external finance, and the consequent search for possibilities for trade expansion, trade liberalization is looked upon with favor. For a more thorough discussion see United Nations, World Economic Survey (New York: United Nations, 1992), pp. 59-61.

24 See OECD, Trade Liberalization, pp. 10-14.

25 See Michael Atkin, The International Grain Trade, (Cambridge, U.K: Woodhead Publishing Limited, 1992), pp. 145-154.

26 See World Bank, World Development Report, 1992, p. 14.

27 See FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation, 1992), pp. 226-227.