Military R&D in the Federal Republic of Germany

L.J. Dumas , The Overburdened Economy, Berkeley 1986 , pp. 207 f.

R.W. DeGrasse Jr., Military Expansion Economic Decline, New York 1983.

H. Tirman (ed.), The Militarization of High Technology, Cambridge 1984.

F.R. Lichtenberg , Crowding Out: the Impact of the Strategic Defense Initiative on U.S. Civilian R&D Investment and Industrial Competitiveness, Columbia University, February 1988, p. 11 '... whereas virtually all of the R&D conducted in Japan and West Germany is civilian'.

J. Reppy , 'Military R&D and Technology Gaps in Trade', in T. Lucid , et al. (ed.), The Economic Consequences of Military Spending in the United States and the Soviet Union, New York 1987, pp. 52 ff.

Sipri (ed.), Yearbook 1972, Stockholm 1972, pp. 149 ff. A good literature survey is provided by S. Chan 'The Impact of Defense Spending on Economic Performance: A Survey of Evidence and Problems', Orbis 2/1985, pp. 403 ff. and H.G. Mosley ,The Arms Race: Economic and Social Consequences, Lexington 1985.

Outside the Sociology of Science some work has been done by Albrecht, Boehme and Lange (on military research policy), Zoll (sociology), Bickenbach, Kreowski, Franck, Keil (computer science), Boos, Reemtsen (mathematics), Brieler, Mohr, Geuter, Stadler (psychology), Kopetzki (urban planning), Scheffran, Quitzow, Rauh (physics). The Informationsdienst Wissenschaft und Frieden (founded in 1983) is the only journal of the Federal Republic which discusses the problems of military research policy on a regular basis.

See U. Albrecht 'Was ist das Spezifikum der Rüstungsforschung ?' in W. Buckel et al. (ed.), Rüstungsforschung, Marburg 1988, pp. 5-8 and R. Rilling , 'Militärische Forschung in der BRD, Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik 8/1982, p. 947.

See Task Force on Science Policy, Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, 99th Congr., 2nd Sess., Science Support by the Department of Defense, Washington 1987. The continuity of a highly militarized science system is discussed in the excellent article by P. Forman. 'Behind quantum electronics: National security as basis for physical research in the United States, 1940-1960', in: Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 1/1987, pp. 149-229.

The number of pages describing military research amounts to 3.42% (Federal Research Report (FRP) I, 1965); 3.14% (FRP II, 1967); 1.67% (FRP III, 1969); 3.91% (FRP IV, 1972); 0.33% (FRP V, 1975); 0.79% (FRP VI, 1979); 0.90% (FRP VII, 1984); 0.60% (FRP VIII, 1986). The problems of secrecy in science are discussed in R. Rilling, Militärische Wissenschaftspolitik und Geheimhaltung in den USA', Technik-Jahrbuch 4 (1986), Frankfurt 1987.

Wehrdienst v. 9.6. 1986.

See Alexander H. Flax , 'Policy, Perceptions, and Paradigms in the Interdiffusion of Military and Civil Technologies in the United States of America'. Presented at the Conference on the Relationship Between Defense and Civil Technologies, Sussex, England, 21-25.9.1987, Table II.

See R. Rilling , 'Academia Militans. Die neue Militarisierung der amerikanischen Hochschulen', EASt 3/1985, p. 426; id., 'Die Aufrüstung der Köpfe. Neue Entwicklungstendenzen in der militärischen Forschung', in H. Bähren, J. & Tatz, (ed.), Wissenschaft und Rüstung, Braunschweig 1985, pp. 60-106; F.R. Pfetsch , Zur Entwicklung der Wissenschaftspolitik in Deutschland 1750-1914, Berlin 1974; Th. Benecke & G. Schöner , Wehrtechnik für die Verteidigung. Bundeswehr und Industrie - 25 Jahre Partner für den Frieden (1956-1981), Koblenz 1984.

Some aspects of Germany's history of military science are discussed in R. Rilling, Kriegsforschung und Vernichtungswissenschaft in der BRD, Köln 1970. An interesting workable classification scheme was developed by W. Walker, M. Graham, & B. Harbor, 'From Components to Integrated Systems: Technological Diversity and Interactions between the Military and Civilian Sectors. Paper prepared for the NATO Advanced Workshop on The Relationship between Military and Civilian Technologies, Sussex, September 1987. See also the review by D. MacKenzie, 'Science and Technology Studies and the Question of the Military', Social Studies of Science, 2/1986, pp.361-371.

See Bundesministerium der Verteidigung (ed.), Der Verteidigungshaushalt 1988- Entwurf - Erläuterungen und Vergleiche, Bonn (31.8.1987), pp. 31-35; Bundeshaushaltspläne 1983 ff., BMF, Finanzplanung, Bonn 1983 ff. BMFT: Faktenbericht 1986 zum Bundesbericht Forschung, Bonn 1986; Wehrtechnik 1/1988 S. 39.

See Rilling , 'Militärische Forschung', pp. 946-952; id., 'SDI: Auswirkungen auf Wirtschaft und Wissenschaft', in: Gunnar Lindström (ed.), Bewaffnung des Weltraums. Ursachen-Gefahren. Folgen, Hamburg 1986, pp. 145-150

The German government has mentioned this in a parliamentary hearing in 1982 (see Deutscher Bundestag, 9. Wahlperiode, Drs. 9/1401 v. 3.3. 1982, p. 5).

E. Dähne , 'Rüstungsausgaben nach NATO-Kriterien', in: Zmf (ed.), Betrifft: Rüstung... 88/89, Frankfurt 1988, p. 35.

See R. Rilling. 'Rüstungsforschung im Etat 1987, in: Informationsdienst Wissenschaft und Frieden 5/1986, pp. 16 ff.

See Ch. Paine, 'Technology Paces the Arms Race', Pacific Research 2/1979; Ch. Paine & G. Adams, 'The R&D Slush Fund,' The Nation 26.1.1980, p. 72; J. V. Reppy 'The IR&D-Program of the Department of Defense', Cornell University Peace Studies Program, No. 6, New York 1976; Glenn W. Goodman, Jr., 'Independent R&D Efforts Suffer in DoD's More Competitive Contract Environment,' Armed Forces Journal International 6/1987 S. 102 f.

See Reppy, 'IR&D' and Lichtenberg, Crowding Out.

See Rilling, 'Militärische Forschung, pp. 11-19; id.: Militärische Forschung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland', in: Buckel, Rüstungsforschung , pp. 81-83.

The subject of economic effects is discussed by David Weston & Phillip Gummett 'The Economic Impact of Military R&D: Hypotheses, Evidence, and Verification', Defense Analysis 1/1987 , pp. 63-76; M. Pianta , 'High Technology Programmes: For the Military or for the Economy?' in: Bulletin of Peace Proposals 1/ 1988, pp. 53-81.

Science and Public Policy 12/1975, p. 541; see also T. Rütter , 'Wenden' in der Forschungspolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Münster 1986.

Wehrtechnik 5/1987, p. 17.

In the year 1988 the share of ecologically and welfare state-oriented R&D on the federal budget is about 14%, economically oriented R&D funds comprise 46% of the federal budget. The government spends precisely 10 times more on military research this year than on environmental research or on research on renewable energy, 20 times more than on research for the humanization of work and 1000 times more than on peace research.

Based on FRP VIII and IX.

R. Rilling , 'Welche Auswirkungen hat SDI? Die Entwicklung in den USA', in: J. Scheffran, et al. ed., SDI - Falle für Westeuropa, Köln 1987, pp. 74-162; id., 'Zur Politischen Okonomie des SDI-Programmes ', WSI-Mitteilungen 9/ 1987.

See for example FRP IV, pp. 58 ff.

FRP VII, p. 74; FRP IX, p. 364 f.

See BMFT, Faktenbericht 1986, Bonn 1986, pp. 144 ff.; Rütter, Wenden, p. 142.

See H.J. Bontrup & W. Voss , 'Rentabilitätsuntersuchungen im Rüstungsbereich und Veranderungsanforderungen an das Preisrecht', in: WSI-Mitteilungen 9/1987 , pp. 543-551; H.J. Bontrup & W. Voss , 'Rüstungsproduktion - ein Bombengeschäft? in: S+F 5/ 1987, pp. 227-233.

See Rilling. 'Militärische Forschung', pp. 19-23.

Frp VI , p. 91; Deutscher Bundestag, Drucksache Nr. 10/225 v. 4.7.1983 p. 10; Wissenschaftsrat. Perspektiven der Hochschulen' (Draft), Köln 1988, p. 24b.

See Rilling. 'Militärische Forschung', pp. 19-23; 'Aufrüstung' , pp. 91-93; id., 'Militärische Forschung in der Bundesrepublik', pp. 83-84.

Rilling, 'Aufrüstung', pp. 90-95.

D. Fondran , 'Das Forschungs- und Entwicklungskonzept', Wehrtechnik 7/1986, S. 82 ff.

FRP VII, p. 60, FRP IX, p. 80. The remarks of the BMVg are not very precise: in a parliamentary hearing in 1983 the BMVg said it would have spent DM 18 million for military basic research at universities (1952), see Deutscher Bundestag, Drk. 10/225 v. 4.7.1983. Here again there is a difference to the detailed science statistics in the United States, see DoD (ed.). Basic Research Program, Washington 1985

See D. Mohr , 'Thesen zur "Militarisierung der Psychologie " ', Informtationsdienst Wissenschaft und Frieden 1/1987, p. 11; R. Zoll , 'Vernachlassigtes Thema: Militär', in: Informationsdienst Wissenschaft und Frieden 1/1987, pp. 12-16.

See K. Hug , et al. 'Rüstungshaushalt 1987 und Informationstechnik' , in M. Löwe et al. (ed.), Umdenken in der Informatik, Berlin 1987 , pp. 143-162; ibid. 'Neue Waffengeneration in Vorbereitung', Informationsdienst Wissenschaft und Frieden 4/1987, pp. 28-30; H. Neuheuser. 'Mikroelektronik für die Wehrtechnik ', Jahrbuch der Wehrtechnik, Koblenz 1985, pp. 110 ff.

See O.V., ' Neues von SDI. Aufträge in der BRD (I)', Informationsdienst Wissenschaft und Frieden 1/1987, p. 29: 'SDI-Aufträge in der BRD (II),' in: Informationsdienst Wissenschaft und Frieden 5/1987 , pp. 18-19.

See R. Rilling , 'Konsequenzen der 'Strategic Defense Initiative' für die Forschungspolitik'. Blätter für deutsche und international Politik 6/1985; id.: Welchen zivilen Nutzen hat SDI?, Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik 5/1985.

See J. Weyer : Pseudocivilian Technologies - A Concept for Explanation of the 'Ambivalent' Character of High-Tech Research, in: E. Mendelsohn / R. Svensson (eds.), Proceedings, Conference 'Science and Weapons'. 1989