Turkey's Role in the EU's Security and Foreign Policies

1 Turkey became an associate member of the EC when it signed the Ankara Treaty/Association Agreement on 12 September 1963. It applied for full membership in April 1987 and signed a Customs Union Agreement - as foreseen by the Association Agreement - in 1995. The EU has excluded Turkey from its enlargement process in its Agenda 2000 and the December 1997 Luxembourg Summit decisions.

2 In 1992, the EU decided that all European NATO members who are not EU members - namely, Iceland, Norway, and Turkey - may have associate member status in the WEU.

3 Treaty on the EU, 1992, Title I, Common Provisions, Article B.

4 Peter Ludlow, A View from Brussels (Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies, July 1997), as quoted by Esben Oust Heiberg, `Security Implications of EU Expansion to the North and East', in Kjell A. Eliassen, ed., Foreign and Security Policy in the European Union (London: Sage, 1998), on p. 185.

5 See Peter van Ham, `Europe's Common Defense Policy: Implications for the Trans-Atlantic Relationship', Security Dialogue, vol. 31, no. 2, June 2000, pp. 215-228.

6 Presidency Conclusions, Helsinki Council, 10-11 December 1999, paragraph 27.

7 Declaration of the EU and the USA, Bonn, 21 June 1999, available at http://www.state.gov/www/regions/eur/eu/decl_990621_useu_bonn.html.

8 See Philip Gordon, `Does the WEU Have a Role?', Washington Quarterly, vol. 20, no. 1, Winter 1997, pp. 125-140.

9 For an informed analysis, see John Gerard Ruggie, `Consolidating the European Pillar: The Key to NATO's Future', Washington Quarterly, vol. 20, no. 1, Winter 1997, pp. 109-124.

10 J. A. C. Lewis, `EU Military Maneuvering', Jane's Defence Weekly, vol. 32, no. 23, 8 December 1999, p. 27.

11 Presidency Conclusions, Santa Maria Da Feira European Council, 19-20 June 2000.

12 As cited in Martin Walker, `EU Seizes Military Role', The Guardian, 12 May 1999.

13 Alexander Vershbow, `ESDI: Berlin, St. Malo and Beyond - Remarks to the Western European Union Institute for Security Studies', Paris, 28 January 1999, available at http://www.nato.int/usa/ambassador/s990128a.htm.

14 David Buchan, Peter Norman & Robert Peston, `Common Defence Policy Agreed: Minister Back Deal To Give EU Military Capacity To Handle Regional Crisis', Financial Times, 1 June 1999.

15 `Turkish Minister Says European Security “Inconceivable” Without Turkey', BBC Monitoring European, London, 3 December 1999.

16 The Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Press Releases, 13 December 1999.

17 Joint press meeting of Turkey's Foreign Minister Ismail Cem and NATO Secretary General Lord Robertson, Ankara, 9 March 2000.

18 The Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Press Releases, 18 July 2000.

19 The Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Press Releases, 18 July 2000; Cumhuriyet, 19 July 2000.

20 This declaration from Richard Holbrooke, then US assistant secretary of state for European affairs, is from 1995 and is quoted in John Tirman, `Improving Turkey's Bad Neighborhood', World Policy Journal, vol. XV, no. 1, Spring 1998, p. 61.

21 William Drozdiak, `U.S. Tepid On European Defense Plan: EU Leaders Dismiss Worry About NATO', Washington Post, 7 March 2000.

22 Doris Kraus, Interview with Lord Robertson, Die Presse, 16 December 1999.

23 Drozdiak (note 21 above).

24 See Björn Hagelin, Pieter D. Wezeman & Siemon T. Wezeman, `Transfer of Major Conventional Weapons', SIPRI Yearbook 2000 (Oxford: OUP, 2000), Appendix 7A, p. 368.

25 The Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Press Releases, 14 February 2000.

26 The original name for this operation was Provide Comfort. It was changed in 1997 due to French withdrawal.

27 See The Military Balance 1999-2000 (Oxford: OUP, 1999), p. 74; the KFOR information is available at http://kforonline.com.

28 Speech delivered by Turkish Foreign Minister Ismail Cem in East-West Institute on 2 May 2000, The Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Press Releases, 3 May 2000.

29 See Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs documents on Turkish foreign policy towards Central Asia and the Caucasus, available at http://www.mfa.gov.tr/grupa/default.htm.

30 Chris Nuttall & Ian Traynor, `Kohl Tries To Cool Row with Ankara', The Guardian (Manchester), 7 March 1997.

31 Speech by Nicole Fontaine, President of the European Parliament, at the Helsinki European Council, 10 December 1999.

32 Doris Kraus, interview with Lord Robertson, Die Presse, 16 December 1999.

33 Stephen Kinzer, `First Question for Europe: Is Turkey Really European?', New York Times, 9 December 1999.

34 Kelly Couturier, `Turkish Premier Expected to Press Clinton on Pipeline', Washington Post, 19 December 1997, p. A46.