The Autonomy Dilemma of Track Two Diplomacy in Southeast Asia

1 David B. Dewitt, `Common, Comprehensive and Cooperative Security', Pacific Review, vol. 7, no. 1, 1994, pp. 1-15; Muthiah Alagappa, `Comprehensive Security: Interpretation in ASEAN Countries', in Robert A. Scalapino et al., eds, Asian Security Issues: Regional and Global (Berkeley, CA: Institute of East Asian Studies, 1988), pp. 50-78.

2 Jim Rolfe, `Regional Comprehensive Security: Some Problems of Definition and Application', paper presented for the Working Group on Comprehensive and Cooperative Security, Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific, 21-22 March 1995, Wellington, New Zealand, p. 13.

3 John Gerard Ruggie, `Multilateralism: The Anatomy of an Institution', in John Gerard Ruggie, ed., Multilateralism Matters: The Theory and Praxis of an Institutional Form (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 10-11.

4 See Miles Kahler, `Institution-building in the Pacific', in Andrew Mack & John Ravenhill, eds, Pacific Cooperation: Building Economic and Security Regimes in the Asia-Pacific Region (St. Leonard's: Allen and Unwin, 1994), pp. 27-43, on p. 38; and Lawrence Woods, Asia-Pacific Diplomacy: Nongovernmental Organizations and International Relations (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1993), p. 25.

5 For more information on these meetings, see University of Toronto-York University Joint Centre for Asia Pacific Studies, Dialogue Monitor: Inventory of Multilateral Meetings on Asia Pacific Security Studies, nos. 1-6, 1995-98. In 1998, this became Dialogue and Research Monitor and is currently published by the University of British Columbia.

6 See Paul Evans, `The Dialogue Process on Asia Pacific Security Issues: Inventory and Analysis', in Paul Evans, ed., Studying Asia Pacific Security: The Future of Research, Training, and Dialogue Activities (Toronto: University of Toronto-York University Joint Centre for Asia Pacific Studies, 1994), pp. 297-318; and Pauline Kerr, `The Security Dialogue in the Asia-Pacific', Pacific Review, vol. 7, no. 4, 1994, pp. 397-409.

7 William D. Davidson & Joseph V. Montville, `Foreign Policy According to Freud', Foreign Policy, no. 45, Winter 1981-82, pp. 148-160, on p. 155.

8 Diane Stone, `Networks, Second Track Diplomacy and Regional Cooperation: The Role of Southeast Asian Think Tanks', paper presented at the 38th Annual International Studies Association Convention, Toronto, Canada, 22-26 March 1997, p. 19.

9 See David Capie, Paul Evans & Akiko Fukushima, `Speaking Asia Pacific Security: A Lexicon of English Terms with Chinese and Japanese Translations and a Note on the Japanese Translation', Working Paper, University of Toronto-York University Joint Centre for Asia Pacific Studies, 1998, p. 71; and Andris V. Balmaks, `The Utility of Non-official Security Dialogue in the Asia-Pacific in the Post-Cold War Era', Asia-Australia Institute, University of New South Wales, July 1998, p. 7. Other scholars have referred to `track one and a half' as `managed' or `directed' track two processes. See Xavier Furtado, `Bridge Over Troubled Waters: Strengthening the Role of Track II Security Mechanisms in the South China Seas', CANCAPS Papier no. 19, February 1999, p. 11.

10 The Institute for Multi-Track Diplomacy uses a framework identifying nine different tracks of diplomatic activity based on the participants involved, the form of activity, and the issue area. It is largely ignored, however, by Asia Pacific dialogue networks. See Louise Diamond & John MacDonald, Multi-Track Diplomacy: A Systems Approach to Peace (West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, 1996), pp. 1-5.

11 See Yuen Foong Khong, `Making Bricks Without Straw in the Asia Pacific?', Pacific Review, vol. 10, no. 2, 1997, pp. 289-300, on p. 292; and Stuart Harris, `The Regional Role of “Track Two” Diplomacy', in Hadi Soesastro & Anthony Bergin, eds, The Role of Security and Economic Cooperation Structures in the Asia Pacific Region (Jakarta: Centre for Strategic and International Studies, 1996), pp. 139-160, on p. 144.

12 ASEAN has Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam as members.

13 See Carolina G. Hernandez, `Complex Interdependence and Track Two Diplomacy in the Asia Pacific in the Post-Cold War Era', Professorial Chair Paper 95-16, College of Social Sciences and Philosophy, University of the Philippines, 1995, p. 17; and Stone (note 8 above), pp. 21-23.

14 Desmond Ball, `A New Era in Confidence Building: The Second-Track Process in the Asia/Pacific Region', Security Dialogue, vol. 25, no. 2, June 1994, pp. 157-176, on p. 169.

15 See Desmond Ball, `CSCAP: Its Future Place in the Regional Security Architecture', in Bunn Nagara & Cheah Siew Ean, eds, Managing Security and Peace in the Asia-Pacific (Kuala Lumpur: Institute of Strategic and International Studies, 1996), pp. 289-325; and Paul Evans, `The Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific: Contexts and Prospects', CANCAPS Papier no. 2, March 1994.

16 In 1998 Jusuf Wanandi threatened to close down CSIS when he felt that political support for the institute and its activities was diminishing in the wake of the financial crisis. See Far Eastern Economic Review, 26 February 1998, p. 12. For similar trends in CSCAP, see Ball (note 15 above), p. 306.

17 Harris (note 11 above), p. 151.

18 Stone (note 8 above), pp. 28-29.

19 See Project Director's note in Dialogue Monitor: Inventory of Multilateral Meetings on Asia Pacific Security Issues, no. 5, March 1998.

20 `ASEAN Vision 2020', published in ASEAN Secretariat, Handbook on Selected ASEAN Political Documents (Jakarta: Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 1998), pp. 76-77.

21 See Pierre Lizee, `Civil Society and the Construction of Security in Southeast Asia: Setting the Research Agenda', paper presented at the 13th Asia Pacific Roundtable held in Kuala Lumpur on 31 May-2 June 1999, p. 9.

22 Tadashi Yamamoto, ed., Emerging Civil Society in the Asia Pacific Community (Tokyo: Japan Center for International Exchange, 1995), p. 26.

23 See introductory chapters of Kim Beng Phar, `ASEAN's Approach to Confidence Building and Conflict Resolution in the Post Cold War Era: Case Study of ASEAN Track Two Diplomacy', unpublished thesis (Master of Philosophy in International Relations) submitted to Cambridge University, 1996.

24 See Graeme Cheeseman, `Asian-Pacific Security Discourse in the Wake of the Asian Economic Crisis', Pacific Review, vol. 12, no. 3, 1999, pp. 333-356, on p. 349.

25 Julaporn Euarukskul, `The ASEAN Region', in Paul B. Stares, ed., The New Security Agenda: A Global Survey (Tokyo: Japan Centre for International Exchange, 1998), pp. 248-271, on pp. 264-265.

26 Desmond Ball has also noted this in CSCAP. See Ball (note 15 above), p. 306.

27 Interviews conducted in Southeast Asia, January-February 1999.

28 See John Garofano, `Flexibility or Irrelevance: Ways Forward for the ARF', Contemporary Southeast Asia, vol. 21, no. 1, April 1999, pp. 74-94, on p. 87; Anne-Marie Smith, Advances in Understanding International Peacemaking (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, n.d.), p. 15; and Davidson & Montville (note 7 above), p. 15.

29 See Project Director's note in Dialogue Monitor: Inventory of Multilateral Meetings on Asia Pacific Security Issues, no. 5, March 1998.

30 Yamamoto (note 22 above), p. 23.

31 See Joseph Camilieri's introduction in the Pacifica Review special issue, `Alternative Security Systems in the Asia-Pacfic', Pacifica Review, vol. 9, no. 2, October/November 1997, p. 1.

32 Navnita Chadha Behera, Paul Evans & Gowher Rizvi, Beyond Boundaries: A Report on the State of Non-Official Dialogues on Peace, Security and Cooperation in South Asia (Toronto: University of Toronto-York University Joint Centre for Asia Pacific Studies, 1997), p. 19.

33 See Mohamed Jawhar Hassan, `Track Two Activities in the Asia Pacific Region', unpublished paper, 9 September 1998, p. 12.

34 Agence France Presse, 22 July 1998.