Multivariate methods such as factor analysis and cluster analysis have been used for many years by psychiatric researchers primarily for investigating the problems of psychiatric diagnosis. In more recent times, the range of multivariate techniques used has been extended as has the number of areas in which they are being applied.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
1 De Groot MH, Mezzich JE. Psychiatric statistics. In: Atkinson AC, Fienberg SE eds. A celebration of statistics: the ISI centenary volume. New York: Springer, 1985: 145-165.
2.
2 Rosenboom WW. The fallacy of the null hypothesis significance test. Psychological Bulletin1960; 57: 416-428.
3.
3 Oakes M. Statistical inference: a commentary for the social and behavioural sciences. Chichester: John Wiley, 1986.
4.
4 Gardner MJ, Altman DG. Confidence intervals rather than p-values: estimation rather than hypothesis testing. British Medical journal1986; 292: 746-750.
5.
5 White SJ. Statistical errors in the British Journal of Psychiatry. British Journal of Psychiatry1979; 135: 336-342.
6.
6 McGuigan SM. The use of statistics in the British Journal of Psychiatry. British Journal of Psychiatry1995; 167: 683-688.
7.
7 Dunn G, Sham P, Hand D. Statistics and the nature of depression. journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A1993; 156: 63-87.
8.
8 Tuke H. Dictionary of psychological medicine, volume II. London: Churchill, 1892.
9.
9 Pfeffer J, Stein G. Diagnosis, classification and measurement. In: Stein G, Wilkinson G eds. General adult psychiatry, volume 2. London: Royal College of Pyschiatrists, 1998.
10.
10 Linnaeus G. Systema naturae sive regna tria naturue systematica proposita clases, ordines, general et species. Leyden: J Haak, 1735.
11.
11 Linnaeus G. Genera morborum in auditorum usum. Uppsala: CE Steinert, 1763.
12.
12 Kendler KS. Towards a scientific nosology. Archives of General Psychiatry1990; 47: 969-973.
13.
13 Kraepelin E. Psychiatrie, Ein Lehrbuch fur Studierende und Aerzte, 5th edn.Leipzig: JA Barth, 1896.
14.
14 Bossiers de Sauvages P. Nosologia methodica, sistens morborum classes, genera et species juxta sydenhami meniem et botanicorum ordinem. de Tournes, Amsterdam: de Tournes, 1768.
15.
15 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 1st edn.Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1952.
16.
16 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 2nd edn.Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1952.
17.
17 American Psychiatric Organisation. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 3rd edn. revised Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Organisation, 1987.
18.
18 American Psychiatric Organisation. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 3rd edn.Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Organisation, 1980.
19.
19 Albee GW. Notes towards a positive paper opposing psychiatric diagnosis. In: Mahrer AR ed. New approaches to personality ciassification. New York: Columbia University Press, 1970: 385-395.
20.
20 Szasz TS. The myth of mental illness. New York: Harper, 1960.
21.
21 Beck AT, Ward CH, Mendelson M, Mock JE, Erbaugh JK. An inventory for measuring depression. Archives Qf General Psychiatry1961; 4: 561-571.
22.
22 Hamilton M. A rating scale for depression. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry1960; 23: 56-61.
23.
23 Everitt BS, Gourlay AJ, Kendell RE. An attempt at validation of traditional psychiatric syndromes by cluster analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry1971; 119: 399-412.
26 McLachlan GJ, Basford KE. Mixture models: inference and applications to clustering. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1988.
27.
27 Kendell RE. The classification of depression: a review of contemporary confusion. British Journal of Psychiatry1976; 129: 15-28.
28.
28 Kiloh LG, Garside RF. The independence of neurotic depression and endogenous depression. British Journal of Psychiatry1963; 109: 451-463.
29.
29 Carney MWP, Roth M, Garside RF. The diagnosis of depressive syndromes and the prediction of ECT response. British Journal of Psychiatry1965; 111: 659-674.
30.
30 Becker J. Depression: theory and research. Washington, DC: VH Winston, 1974.
31.
31 Eysenck HJ. The classification of depressive illness. British Journal of Psychiatry1970; 117: 241-250.
32.
32 Katschring H, Sint P. Are there different types of attempted suicide? A cluster analytic approach. In: Speyer, Diekstra, Van der Loo eds. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference for Suicide Prevention. Amsterdam: Swets, Zeillinger, 1974.
33.
33 Kiev A. Cluster analysis profiles of suicide attempters. American Journal of Psychiatry1976; 133: 150-153.
34.
34 Henderson AS, Hartigan J, Davidson J, Lance GN, Duncan-Jones P, Koller KM et al. A typology of parasuicide. British Journal of Psychiatry1979; 131: 631-641.
36 Paykel ES, Rassaby E. Classification of suicide attempters by cluster analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry1978; 133: 45-52.
37.
37 Paykel ES. Have multivariate statistics contributed to classification?British Journal of Psychiatry1981; 139: 357-362.
38.
38 Fleiss JL. Comment on statistics in psychiatry. Statistical Science1987; 2: 107-134.
39.
39 World Health Organisation. International classification of diseases. Geneva: World Health Organisation.
40.
40 Thase ME, Kupfer DJ, Faziozka AJ, Buysse DJ, Simons AD, Frank E. Identifying an abnormal electroencephalographic sleep profile to characterize major depressive disorder. Biological Psychiatry1996; 41: 964-973.
41.
41 Salloway S, Malloy P, Kohn R, Gillord E, Duffy J, Rogg J et al. MRI and neuropsychological differences in early and late-life-onset geriatric depression. Neurology1996; 46: 1567-1575.
42.
42 Ernst M, Godfrey KA, Sliva RR, Pouget ER, Welkowits J. A new pic orial instrument for child and adolescent psychiatry–a pilot study. Psychiatry Research1994; 51: 87-94.
43.
43 Patel V, Todd C. The validity of the Shona version of the self-report questionnaire (SRQ) and the development of the SRQ-8. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research1996; 6: 153-160.
44.
44 Virkkunen M, Rawlings R, Tokola R, Poland RE, Guidotti A, Nemeroff C et al. CSF biochemistries, glucose-metabolism, and diurnal activity rhythms in alcoholic, violent offenders, fire setters, and healthy volunteers. Archives of General Psychiatry1994; 51: 20-27.
45.
45 Manji HK, Chen G, Potter W, Kosten TR. Guanine nucleotide binding proteins in opioid-dependent patients. Biological Psychiatry1997; 41: 130-134.
46.
46 Chabot U, Serfontein G. Quantitative electroencephalographic profiles of children with attention-deficit disorder. Biological Psychiatry1996; 40: 951-963.
47.
47 Richman H, Sallee FR, Folley P. Personality differences between anxious and non-anxious children within a dimensional framework. Journal of Anxiety Disorders1996; 10: 149-162.
48.
48 Dunn G, Everitt BS, Pickles A. Modelling covariances and latent variables using EQS. London: Chapman & Hall, 1993.
49.
49 Levine J, Rudy T, Kerns R. A two-factor model of denial of illness: a confirmatory factor analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research1994; 38: 99-110.
50.
50 Peralta V, Cuesta MJ. Negative symptoms in schizophrenia–a confirmatory factor analysis of competing models. American Journal of Psychiatry1995; 152: 1450-1457.
51.
51 De Gagne TA, Mikail SE, D'Eon JL. Confirmatory factor analysis of a 4-factor model of chronic pain evaluation. Pain1995; 60: 195-202.
52.
52 Cox BJ, Parker JDA, Svinson RP. Confirmatory factor analysis of the fear questionnaire with social phobia patients. British Journal of Psychiatry1996; 168: 497-499.
53.
53 Marks IM, Matthews AM. Brief standard selfrating for phobic patients. Behavioural Research and Therapy1979; 17: 263-267.
54.
54 Leung F, Schwartzman A, Steiger H. Testing a dual-process family model in understanding the development of eating pathology: a structural equation modeling analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders1996; 20: 367-375.
55.
55 Blankfeld DF, Holahan CJ. Family support, coping strategies, and depressive symptoms among mothers of children with diabetes. Journal of Family Psychology1996; 10: 173-179.
56.
56 Schermelleh-Engel K, Eifert GH, Moosbrugger H, Frank D. Perceived competence and trait anxiety as determinants of pain coping strategies. Personality and Individual Differences1997; 22: 1-10.
57.
57 Joreskog KG, Sorbom D. LISREL 7: a guide to the program and applications, 2nd edn.Chicago, IL: SPSS, 1989.
58.
58 Molzahn AE, Northcott HC, Hayduk L. Quality of life of patients with end stage renal disease: a structural equation model. Quality of Life Research1996; 5: 426-432.
59.
59 Drake B, Yadama GN. A structural equation model of burnout and job exit among child protective services workers. Social Work Research1996; 20: 179-187.
60.
60 Kraft P, Rise J. Prediction of attitudes towards restrictive AIDS policies: a structural equation modelling approach. Social Science and Medicine1995; 40: 711-718.
61.
61 Holahan CJ, Holahan CK, Moos RH, Brennan PL. Psychological adjustment in patients reporting cardiac illness. Psychology and Health1997; 12: 345-359.
62.
62 DeJonge JO, Janssen PPM, Van Breukelen GJP. Testing the demand-control-support model among health-care professionals: a structural equation model. Work and Stress1996; 10: 209-224.
63.
63 Lawrence T, Edwards C, Barraclough N, Church S, Hetherington F. Modelling childhood causes of paranormal belief and experience: childhood trauma and childhood fantasy. Personality and Individual Differences1995; 19: 209-215.
64.
64 Holahan CJ, Valentiner DP, Moos RH. Parental support, coping strategies, and psychological adjustrnent: an integrative model with late adolescents. Journal of Youth Adolescents1995; 24: 633-648.
65.
65 Boyle MH, Pickles AR. Maternal depressive symptoms and ratings of emotional disorder symptoms in children and adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry1997; 38: 981-992.
66.
66 Boyle MH, Pickles AR. Influence of maternal depressive symptoms on ratings of childhood behaviour. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology1997; 25: 399-412.
67.
67 Neale MC, Walters EE, Eaves LJ, Maes HH, Kendler KS. Multivariate genetic analysis of twin-family data on fears: Mx models. Behaviour Genetics1994; 24: 119-140.
68.
68 Van den Oord EJ-CG, Boomsima DI, Verhuist FC. A study of problem behaviours in 10 to 15-year-old biologically related and unrelated international adoptees. Behaviour Genetics1994; 25: 193-206.
69.
69 Tambs K, Harris JR, Magnus P. Sex specific factors and effects of common environment for symptoms of anxiety and depression in twins. Behaviour Genetics1995: 25: 33-44.
70.
70 Neale MC. Mx statistical modelling. Richmond, VA: Department of Human Genetics, Medical College of Virgina, 1991.
71.
71 Neale MC. Twin studies. In: Armitage P, Colton T eds. Encyclopaedia of biostatistics. Chichester: John Wiley, 1998: 4613-4626.
72.
72 McIntosh AR, Gorizales-Lima F. Structural equation modelling and its application to network analysis in functional network analysis. Human Brain Mapping1994; 2: 2-22.
73.
73 Grafton ST, Sutton J, Couldwell W, Lew M, Waters C. Network analysis of motor system connectivity in Parkinson's disease: modulation of thalamorcortical interactions after pallidotomy. Human Brain Mapping1994; 2: 45-55.
74.
74 McIntosh AR, Grady CL, Haxby JV, Ungerleider LG, Horwitz B. Changes in limbic and prefrontal functional interactions in a working memory task. Cerebral Cortex1996; 6: 571-584.
75.
75 Nyberg L, McIntosh AR, Cabeza R, Nilsson L-G, Houle S, Habib R, Tulving E. Network analysis of positron emission tomography regional cerebral blood flow data: ensemble inhibition during episodic memory retrieval. Journal of Neuroscience1996; 16: 3753-3759.
76.
76 Buchel C, Friston KJ. Modulation of connectivity in visual pathways by attention: cortical interactions evaluated with structural equation modelling and fMRl. Cerebral Cortex1997; 7: 768-778.
77.
77 Everitt BS, Rabe-Hesketh S. The analysis of proximity data. London: Arnold, 1997.
78.
78 Everitt BS, Dunn G. Applied multivariate data analysis. London: Arnold, 1991.
79.
79 Bonilla JL, Johnson MK. Semantic space in Alzheimer's-Disease patients. Neuropsychology1995; 9: 345-353.
80.
80 Chan AS, Butters N, Salmon DP, Johnson SA, Paulsen JS, Swenson MR. Comparison of the semantic networks in patients with dementia and amnesia. Neuropsychology1995; 9: 177-186.
81.
81 Paulson JS, Romero R, Chan A, Davis AV, Heaton RK, Jeste DV. Impairment of the semantic network in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research1996; 63: 109-121.
82.
82 Osterman K, Bjorkqvist K, Lagerspetz KMJ, Kaukiainen A, Huesmann LR, Fraczek A. Peer and self-estimated aggression and victimization in 8-year-old children from five ethnic groups. Aggressive Behavior1994; 20: 411-428.
83.
83 Minas IH, Stuart GW, Klimidis S, Jackson HJ, Singh BS, Copolov DL. Positive and negative symptoms in the psychoses: multidimensional scaling of SAPS and SANS items. Schizophrenia Research1992; 8: 143-156.
84.
84 Friston KJ, Frith CD, Fletcher P, Liddle PF, Frackowiak RSJ. Functional topography: multidimensional scaling and functional connectivity in the brain. Cerebral Cortex1996; 6: 156-164.
85.
85 Guess D, Roberts S, Siegel-Causey E, Ault M, Guy B, Thompson B, Rues J. Analysis of behaviour state conditions and associated environmental variables among students with profound handicaps. American Journal on Mental Retardation1993; 97: 634-653.
86.
86 Segrin C. Effects of dysphoria and loneliness on social perceptual skills. Perceptual and Motor Skills1993; 77: 1315-1329.
87.
87 Platel H, Lambers J, Eustache F, Cadet B, Dary M, Vider F, Lechevalier B. Characteristics and evolution of writing impairment in Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychologica1993; 31: 1147-1158.
88.
88 Roux S, Malvy J, Bruneau N, Garreau B, Guerin P, Sauvage D, Barthelemy C. Identification of behaviour profiles within a population of autistic children using multivariate statistical methods. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry1995; 4: 249-258.
89.
89 Kumbasar E, Romney AK, Batchelder WH. Systematic biases in social perception. American Journal of Sociology1994; 100: 477-505.
