Empirical research on hope, expected effect and future time perspectives has employed a variety of different time frames. This research note contends that the effect of these time frames, frequently established by temporal instructions, merits further investigation. The present research compares four sets of time frame instructions with college students in the mid-west of the USA. Results indicate a significant increase of hope across the three specific time frames (with hope `in the next five years' being the greatest). While pessimism and hope for others did not vary with projected time, optimism and hope for self saw an increase through the specific time frames. Consequently, an asymmetry of `situational' versus `dispositional' self attribution for the past and future is proposed for this student population. We suggest that the self/other temporal distinction may be a fruitful area for cross cultural exploration.
Agarwal, A.
and Tripathi, L. B. (1980) `Time Perspective in Achievement Motivation', Psychologia23: 50-62.
2.
Anastasi, A.
(1982) Psychological Testing. New York: Macmillan.
3.
Argyle, M.
(1987) The Psychology of Happiness. New York: Methuen.
4.
Beck, A. T.
(1967) Depression: Clinical, Experimental and Theoretical Aspects. New York: Harper and Row.
5.
Bradburn, N. M.
(1969) The Structure of Psychological Well-being. Chicago, IL: Aldine.
6.
Bryant, F.
and Veroff, J. (1982) `The Structure of Psychological Well-being: A Socio-historical Analysis', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology43: 653-657.
7.
Campion, M. A.
and Lord, R. G. (1982) `A Control Systems Conceptualization of the Goal-setting and Changing Process', Organizational Behavior and Human Performance30: 265-287.
8.
Caplan, R.
, Tripathi, R. and Naidu, R. (1985) `Subjective Past, Present, and Future Fit: Effects on Anxiety, Depression and Other Indicators of Wellbeing', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology48: 180-197.
9.
Cottle, T. J.
(1976) Perceiving Time. New York: Wiley.
10.
Cronbach, L. J.
(1984) Essentials of Psychological Testing. San Francisco, CA: Harper and Row.
11.
DeCharmes, R.
and Dave, P. (1965) `Hope of Success, Fear of Failures, Subjective Probability and Risk-taking Behavior', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology1: 558-568.
12.
Feather, N.
(1982) Expectations and Actions: Expectancy Value Models in Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
13.
Fibel, B.
and Hale, W. (1978) `The Generalized Expectancy for Success Scale: A New Measure', Journal of Clinical and Consulting Psychology46: 924.
14.
Fischer, M.
and Leitenberg, H. (1986) `Optimism and Pessimism in Elementary School-aged Children', Child Development57: 241-248.
15.
Gjesme, T.
(1983) `On the Concept of Future Time Orientation: Considerations of Some Functions and Measurement Implications', International Journal of Psychology18: 443-461.
16.
Gottschalk, L.
(1986) `Hope and Other Deterrents to Illness', American Journal of Psychotherapy39: 515-524.
17.
Harvey, O. J.
and Clapp, W. (1965) `Hope Expectancy, and Reactions to the Unexpected', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology2: 45-52.
18.
Hill, R. D.
, Gallagher, D., Thompson, L. W. and Ishida, T. (1988) `Hopelessness as a Measure of Suicidal Intent in the Depressed Elderly', Psychology and Aging3: 230-232.
19.
Hollenbeck, J. R.
and Williams, C. R. (1987) `Goal Importance, Self-focus, and the Goal-setting Process', Journal of Applied Psychology72: 204-211.
20.
Jones, E. E.
and Nisbett, R. E. (1971) The Actor and the Observer: Divergent Perceptions of the Causes of Behavior. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
21.
Kelly, J. R.
and McGrath, J. E. (1988) On Time and Method. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
22.
Latham, G. P.
and Yukel, G. A. (1975) `A Review of Research on the Application of Goal-setting in Organizations', Academy of Management Journal18: 824-845.
23.
Lauer, R.
(1981) Temporal Man: The Meaning and Uses of Social Time. New York: Praeger.
24.
Lawton, M. P.
(1977) `Morale: What Are We Measuring', in C. N. Nydegger (ed.) Measuring Morale: A Guide to Effective Assessment. Washington, DC: Sage.
25.
Lawton, M. P.
(1977) `Morale: What Are We Measuring', in C. N. Nydegger (ed.) Measuring Morale: A Guide to Effective Assessment. Washington, DC: Sage.
26.
Levin, I.
and Zakay, D. (eds) (1989) Time and Human Cognition: A Life Span Perspective. Amsterdam: North Holland/Elsevier.
27.
Locke, E. A.
(1982) `Relation of Goal Level to Performance with a Short Work Period and Multiple Goal Levels', Journal of Applied Psychology67: 512-514.
28.
Miller, D. T.
and Dale, C. A. (1980) `Effects of Temporal Perspective on the Attribution Process', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology39: 532-541.
29.
Miller, G. A.
, Galanter, E. and Pribram, K. (1960) Plans and the Structure of Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
30.
Mischel, W.
(1986) Introduction to Personality: A New Look. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
31.
Norem, J. K.
and Cantor, N. (1986) `Anticipatory and Post Hoc Cushioning Strategies: Optimism and Defensive Pessimism in “Risky” Situations', Cognitive Therapy and Research10: 347-362.
32.
Pouthas, V.
, Droit, S. and Jacquet, A. (1993) `Temporal Experiences and Time Knowledge in Infancy and Early Childhood', Time and Society2: 199-218.
33.
Scheier, M.
and Carver, C. (1985) `Optimism, Coping and Health: Assessment and Implications of Generalized Outcome Expectancies', Health Psychology4: 219-247.
34.
Staats, S. R.
(1988) `Hope: A Comparison of Two Self-report Measures for Adults', Journal of Personality Assessment53: 366-375.
35.
Staats, S. R.
and Stassen, M. A. (1985) `Hope: An Affective Cognition', Social Indicators Research17: 235-242.
36.
Taylor, S. E.
and Brown, J. (1988) `Illusions and Well-being: A Social Psychological Perspective on Mental Health', Psychological Bulletin103: 193-210.
37.
Weinstein, N. D.
(1982) `Unrealistic Optimism about Susceptibility to Health Problems', Journal of Behavioral Medicine5: 441-460.
