This study addresses the absence of integrated self-assessment tools for information, media and data literacy (MILDAL) competencies among social sciences undergraduates. It aims to develop and validate the Q-MILDAL questionnaire, a novel instrument designed to holistically measure students’ self-perceptions across these interrelated literacies. Q-MILDAL was developed through a mixed-methods framework: Content analysis of international literature to identify core dimensions (Authority, Creation, Value of Information, Research, Dialogue, Search). Qualitative validation via expert panel reviews (n = 8) and student focus group discussions to refine clarity and relevance. And quantitative validation using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and reliability testing (Cronbach’s α) with a pilot sample of 80 students from Education, Information and Communication, and Economics programmes. The final 48-item scale demonstrated exceptional reliability (α = 0.953) and a six-factor structure aligning with the proposed dimensions. Qualitative feedback highlighted the need to simplify language and condense items, while quantitative results confirmed the tool’s robustness in capturing students’ self-assessed MILDAL competencies. Q-MILDAL is the first integrated instrument to consolidate information, media and data literacy self-perceptions into a single validated scale. Its mixed-methods design ensures both methodological rigour and practical applicability, offering educators an adaptable tool to identify gaps in literacy training and tailor curricula to interdisciplinary needs. The study advances scholarly discourse by bridging fragmented approaches to literacy assessment in higher education.
AithalAAithalPS (2020) Development and validation of Survey Questionnaire & Experimental Data – A systematical review-based statistical approach. International Journal of Management, Technology, and Social Sciences5(2): 233–251. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3724105
2.
Al-Zou’biR (2021) The impact of media and information literacy on acquiring the critical thinking skill by the educational faculty’s students. Thinking Skills and Creativity39: 100782.
3.
ArshadAGhazalSSaleemN, et al. (2022) Revisiting media literacy measurement: Development and validation of 3-factor media literacy scale. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning38(5): 1371–1378.
4.
Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) (2015) Framework for information literacy for higher education. Available at: http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/ilframework (accessed 23 June 2025)
5.
Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) (2023) ACRL Framework Discovery. Available at: https://tinyurl.com/framework-discovery (accessed 23 June 2025)
6.
BaistamanJAwangZAfthanorhanA, et al. (2020) Developing and validating the measurement model for financial literacy construct using confirmatory factor analysis. Humanities and Social Sciences Reviews8(2): 413–422.
7.
Calzada PradoJMarzalMÁ (2013) Incorporating data literacy into information literacy programs: Core competencies and contents. Libri63(2): 123–134.
8.
ChanLLIdrisN (2017) Validity and reliability of the instrument using exploratory factor analysis and Cronbach’s alpha. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences7(10): 400–410.
9.
CohenJ (2013) Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. New York, NY: Routledge.
10.
Cuervo-SánchezSLMartínez-de-MorentinJIMedrano-SamaniegoC (2022) Una intervención para mejorar la competencia mediática e informacional. Educación XXI25(1): 407–431.
11.
DouglasKAFernandezTFosmireM, et al. (2020) Self-directed information literacy scale: A comprehensive validation study. Journal of Engineering Education109(4): 685–703.
12.
EmmettAEmdeJ (2007) Assessing information literacy skills using the ACRL standards as a guide. Reference Services Review35(2): 210–229.
13.
EnakrireRT (2021) Data literacy for teaching and learning in higher education institutions. Library Hi Tech News38(2): 1–7.
14.
EvansSAHongLKimJ, et al. (2024) Community college students’ self-assessment of data literacy: exploring differences amongst demographic, academic, and career characteristics. Information and Learning Sciences125(3/4): 232–251.
15.
Fernández-PascualRPintoMGarcía MarcoF J (2024) Emergence and evolution of data literacy: Insights from a bibliometric study. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science. Epub ahead of print 26 July 2024. DOI: 10.1177/09610006241265102.
16.
FlierlMMaybeeCBonemE (2021) Developing the informed Learning Scale: Measuring Information Literacy in Higher Education. College & Research Libraries82(7): 1104–1016.
17.
GliemJAGliemRR (2003) Calculating, interpreting, and reporting Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient for Likert-type scales. In: Midwest research-to-practice conference in adult, continuing, and community education, pp.82–87.
18.
HawkinsMChengCElsworthGR, et al. (2020) Translation method is validity evidence for construct equivalence: Analysis of secondary data routinely collected during translations of the Health Literacy Questionnaire (HLQ). BMC Medical Research Methodology20: 130–213.
19.
HsiaoKLKuYYLeeYT (2023) Development and validation of a scale for assessing university students’ new online media and reporting literacy. Education and Information Technologies28(10): 13569–13594.
20.
JoMHaY (2019) Development and validation of an instrument to measure nursing information literacy competency. Journal of Korean Academy of Community Health Nursing30(1): 25–37.
21.
JulienHGrossMLathamD (Eds.) (2020) The information literacy framework: Case studies of successful implementation. Bloomsbury Publishing PLC.
22.
KayserLKarnoeAFurstrandD, et al. (2018) A multidimensional tool based on the eHealth literacy framework: Development and initial validity testing of the eHealth literacy questionnaire (eHLQ). Journal of Medical Internet Research20(2): e36.
23.
KimJHongLEvansS, et al. (2024) Toward measuring data literacy for higher education: Developing and validating a data literacy self-efficacy scale. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology75(8): 916–931.
24.
KocMBarutE (2016) Development and validation of New Media Literacy Scale (NMLS) for university students. Computers in Human Behavior63: 834–843.
25.
LopesPCostaPAraujoL, et al. (2018) Measuring media and information literacy skills: Construction of a test. Communications43(4): 508–534.
26.
LuanLLiangJCChaiCS, et al. (2023) Development of the new media literacy scale for EFL learners in China: A validation study. Interactive Learning Environments31(1): 244–257.
27.
MalekiESoleymaniMRAshrafi-RiziH, et al. (2023) Development and validation of the clinical information literacy questionnaire. Journal of Education and Health Promotion12(1): 346.
28.
MarshallR (2006). An instrument to measure information competency. Journal of Literacy and Technology: An Academic Journal.
29.
MaybeeCZilinskiL (2015) Data informed learning: A next phase data literacy framework for higher education. Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology52(1): 1–4.
30.
NunnallyJ (1978) Psychometric theory (2d ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
31.
OguguoBCENannimFAOkekeAO, et al. (2020) Assessment of students’ data literacy skills in southern Nigerian universities. Universal Journal of Educational Research8(6): 2717–2726.
32.
PintoMCaballeroDSalesD, et al. (2020) MOBILE-APPS questionnaire: Developing and validating a scale to measure the attitudes and perceptions of undergraduate students on mobile information literacy. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science52(4): 1063–1072.
33.
PintoMCaballero-MariscalDGarcía-MarcoFJ, et al. (2023) A strategic approach to information literacy: Data literacy: A systematic review. El Profesional de la Informacion32(6): e320609.
34.
PintoMFernández-PascualR (2014) Information literacy competencies among social sciences undergraduates: A case study using structural equation model. In: Information literacy. Lifelong learning and digital citizenship in the 21st century: Second European conference, ECIL 2014, Proceedings (Vol. 2), Dubrovnik, Croatia, 20–23 October, pp.370-378. Springer International Publishing.
35.
PintoMFernández-PascualR (2017) A diagnosis of the levels of information literacy competency among social sciences undergraduates. portal Libraries and the Academy17(3): 569–593.
36.
PintoMFernández-PascualRGómez-HernándezJA, et al. (2016) Attitudes toward information competency of university students in social sciences. portal Libraries and the Academy16(4): 737–761.
37.
PintoMGarcía-MarcoFJMartínez-OsorioP, et al. (2021) Visibility of information literacy services of Spanish academic libraries according to their websites: design and validation of a self-assessment tool (No. ART-2021-126289). DOI: 10.3145/epi.2021.may.16.
38.
PintoMGarcía-MarcoJCaballeroD, et al. (2024) Assessing information, media and data literacy in academic libraries: Approaches and challenges in the research literature on the topic. Journal of Academic Librarianship50(5): 102920.
39.
RichardsonB (2019) Scale evaluating the information literacy self-efficacy of medical students created and tested in a six-year Belgian Medical Program. Evidence Based Library and Information Practice14(2): 128–130.
40.
RumbleJNoeN (2009) Project SAILS: Launching information literacy assessment across university waters. Technical Services Quarterly26(4): 287–298.
41.
SchulteSJKnappM (2017) Awareness, adoption, and application of the Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL) Framework for Information Literacy in health sciences libraries. Journal of the Medical Library Association JMLA105(4): 347.
42.
ShreinerTLDykesBM (2021) Visualizing the teaching of data visualizations in social studies: A study of teachers’ data literacy practices, beliefs, and knowledge. Theory & Research in Social Education49(2): 262–306.
43.
ShresthaN (2021) Factor analysis as a tool for survey analysis. American Journal of Applied Mathematics and Statistics9(1): 4–11.
44.
SimonsMMeeusWT'SasJ (2017) Measuring media literacy for media education: Development of a questionnaire for teachers' competencies. Journal of media literacy education9(1): 99–115.
45.
TabachnickB GFedellLS (2007) Using Multivariate Statistics, 5th edn. Pearson Education.
46.
TaberKS (2018) The use of Cronbach’s alpha when developing and reporting research instruments in science education. Research in Science Education48: 1273–1296.
47.
TepeRTepeC (2015) Development and psychometric evaluation of an information literacy self-efficacy survey and an information literacy knowledge test. Journal of Chiropractic Education29(1): 11–15.
Valenzuela UrraCEgozcueBVCastroSO, et al. (2022) Adaptation of the information competency assessment instrument and its application to undergraduate students of the universities of Magallanes and Playa Ancha. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice22(10) 60–79. DOI: 10.33423/jhetp.v22i10.5426.
51.
WatkinsMW (2018) Exploratory factor analysis: A guide to best practice. Journal of Black Psychology44(3): 219–246.
52.
YoonJLeeMAhnJS, et al. (2022) Development and validation of digital health technology literacy assessment questionnaire. Journal of Medical Systems46(2): 13.
53.
YuC (2023) Integrating Information Literacy and academic writing: Developing a self-assessment scale of information-based academic writing. Journal of Academic Librarianship49(6): 102804.
54.
YuXLuoMWuS, et al. (2023) Developing a questionnaire to evaluate the health information literacy in China. Frontiers in Public Health11: 1068648.
55.
ZakerANosratiniaM (2021) Development and validation of a Quantitative Research Literacy Questionnaire. International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Research9(37): 11–30.
56.
ZavaraqiRGhanbariKAtapourH (2023) Investigating the data literacy level of postgraduate students of the University of Tabriz and the factors affecting it. Academic Librarianship and Information Research57(1): 1–14.
57.
ZhuSYangHHWuD, et al. (2021) Investigating the relationship between information literacy and social media competence among university students. Journal of Educational Computing Research59(7): 1425–1449.
58.
ZieglerLAURAGarfieldJOAN (2018) Developing a statistical literacy assessment for the modern introductory statistics course. Statistics Education Research Journal17(2): 161–178.
