The ancient Loulan, situated on the west bank of Lake Lop Nur, Xinjiang, Northwest China, was an important town on the Silk Road connecting China to Europe. However, this once-prosperous kingdom has been a depopulated zone filled with wind-eroded mounds since approximately AD 500–600. A comprehensive understanding of the environmental setting of the flourishing Loulan civilization is a prerequisite for assessing environment–human interaction there. Here, we present our survey, chronology, and archaeobotany (the identification of plant remains) of vegetation use for architecture from eight ancient ruins of the Loulan kingdom to clarify the ecological landscape on the west bank of Lake Lop Nur and to assess paleoenvironmental conditions when the Loulan kingdom flourished. Our results suggest that Populus euphratica, tamarisk (Tamarix Linn), and reed (Phragmites Trin.) were most widely used as building materials in this period. Wood utilization for buildings depended entirely on indigenous vegetation rather than that of the mountains in the Loulan kingdom, even though the Loulan was a predominant transportation hub on the prosperous Silk Road. Our reconstruction indicates that the west bank of Lake Lop Nur was sufficiently wetter than present conditions to support riparian forest growth composed mainly of P. euphratica, tamarisk shrubs, and reed meadows, until approximately AD 500. These wetter conditions and flourishing civilization accompanied an increase in precipitation in arid central Asia. Conversely, combined evidence of both archeological and paleoclimatic records from the water sources of Lake Lop Nur and ancient oases suggest that abrupt decreased mountain precipitation could be considered a significant environmental factor in the decline of Loulan kingdom.
AbuduresuleYLiuGLiW (2004) Report on archaeological investigation and excavation of Xiaohe cemetery in 2002. Research on Frontier Archaeology1: 338–398 (in Chinese).
2.
AichnerBFeakinsSJLeeJEet al. (2015) High-resolution leaf wax carbon and hydrogen isotopic record of the late Holocene paleoclimate in arid Central Asia. Climate of the Past11(4): 619–633.
3.
Ban G (1962) (92, Han Dynasty) HanShu. Beijing, China: Zhonghua Book Company (in Chinese).
4.
CaiYChiang JohnCHBreitenbach SebastianFMet al. (2017) Holocene moisture changes in western China, Central Asia, inferred from stalagmites. Quaternary Science Reviews158: 15–28.
5.
ChenJYangJLiuP (1992) Chinese Wood. Beijing, China: China Forestry Press (in Chinese).
6.
ChenRG (1987) The Influence of Lop Nur Region in Historic Time (ed. XunchengX). Beijing, China: Science Press (The investigation and research of Lop Nur), pp. 284–293.
7.
ChenTWangXDaiJet al. (2016) Plant use in the Lop Nor region of southern Xinjiang, China: Archaeobotanical studies of the Yingpan cemetery (∼25–420 AD). Quaternary International426: 166–174.
8.
ChengHZhangPSpötlCet al. (2012) The climatic cyclicity in semiarid-arid central Asia over the past 500,000 years. Geophysical Research Letters39(1): L01705.
9.
DeforceKHanecaK (2012) Ashes to ashes: Fuelwood selection in Roman cremation rituals in northern Gaul. Journal of Archaeological Science39(5): 1338–1348.
10.
DeforceKHanecaK (2015) Tree-ring analysis of archaeological charcoal as a tool to identify past woodland management: The case from a 14th century site from Oudenaarde (Belgium). Quaternary International366: 70–80.
FengQSuZJinH (1999) Desert evolution and climatic changes in the Tarim River basin since 12ka BP. Science in China Series D-Earth Sciences42(S1): 101–112.
13.
FigueiralIMosbruggerV (2000) A review of charcoal analysis as a tool for assessing Quaternary and Tertiary environments: Achievements and limits. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology164: 397–407.
14.
GriesDZengFFoetzkiAet al. (2003) Growth and water relations of Tamarix ramosissima and Populus euphratica on Taklamakan desert dunes in relation to depth to a permanent water table. Plant Cell & Environment26: 725–736.
15.
HansenV (2012) Silk Road: A New History. New York: Oxford University Press.
16.
HouC (1984) The development and fall of Loulan city. Social Sciences in China2: 155–171 (in Chinese).
17.
HuangL (1989) Huang W B. Historical Archaeology Analects. Beijing, China: Cultural Relics Press (in Chinese).
18.
HuangS (1991) The exploration and the finding of the surveying map about the Silk Road in Qing dynasty. The Western Regions Studies1: 67–72 (in Chinese).
19.
HuangS (1992) Asia Civilization Collection II. Hefei, China: Anhui Education Press (in Chinese).
20.
HuangXChenCJiaWet al. (2015) Vegetation and climate history reconstructed from an alpine lake in central Tienshan Mountains since 8.5ka BP. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology432: 36–48.
21.
JiXL (1990) Fojiao Yu Zhong Yin Wenhua Jiaoliu. Nanchang, China: Jiangxi People’s Publishing House (in Chinese).
22.
JiangHFengGLiuXet al. (2018) Drilling wood for fire: Discoveries and studies of the fire-making tools in the Yanghai cemetery of ancient Turpan, China. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany27: 197–206.
23.
JiangQJiJShenJet al. (2013) Holocene vegetational and climatic variation in westerly-dominated areas of Central Asia inferred from the Sayram Lake in northern Xinjiang, China. Science China Earth Sciences56(3): 339–353.
24.
JinGYuHLuanFet al. (2006) Climate significance of wood samples from LiangchengZhen Longshan culture site (4600-4000a B.P.), Rizhao, Shandong. Quaternary Sciences26(4): 571–579 (in Chinese).
25.
LauterbachSWittRPlessenBet al. (2014) Climatic imprint of the mid-latitude Westerlies in the Central Tian Shan of Kyrgyzstan and teleconnections to North Atlantic climate variability during the last 6000 years. The Holocene24(8): 970–984.
26.
LiJ (1992) The Silk Road and Climate Change (ed. ShengzhangH). Hefei, China: Anhui Education Press (In Asia Civilization Introductions to Important Articles Collection), pp. 129–147.
27.
LiJYuanYWangC (1988) Temperature sequence in the area of the middle reaches of Talimu River and its changes in recent 200 years. Geographical Research7(3): 67–71 (in Chinese).
28.
LiKQinXZhangLet al. (2018) Hydrological change and human activity during Yuan–Ming Dynasties in the Loulan area, northwestern China. The Holocene28(8): 1266–1275.
29.
LinM (1995) A Collection of Papers of Study on the Loulan Culture: An Introduction to the Niya Site and Loulan. Urumqi, China: Xinjiang People’s Publishing House (in Chinese).
30.
LiuCZhangJJiaoPet al. (2016) The Holocene history of Lop Nur and its palaeoclimate implications. Quaternary Science Reviews148: 163–175.
31.
LüHXiaXLiuJet al. (2010) A preliminary study of chronology for a newly-discovered ancient city and five archaeological sites in Lop Nor, China. Chinese Science Bulletin55(1): 63–71.
32.
MengF (2010) Collection of Xinjing Archaeology. Lanzhou, China: Lanzhou University Press (Reprint in 2012) (in Chinese).
33.
MengF (2011) The ecology wisdom and enlightenment of local materials in traditional settlement construction. Doctoral Thesis, Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi’an, China (in Chinese).
34.
MillwardJA (2007) Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang. New York: Columbia University Press.
35.
MischkeSRajabovIMustaevaNet al. (2010) Modern hydrology and late Holocene history of Lake Karakul, eastern Pamirs (Tajikistan): A reconnaissance study. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology289(1–4): 10–24.
36.
NiuG (2004) New archaeological findings in Lop Nur area recent years. The Western Regions Studies2: 84–86 (in Chinese).
37.
PutnamAEPutnamDEAndreu-HaylesLet al. (2016) Little Ice Age wetting of interior Asian deserts and the rise of the Mongol Empire. Quaternary Science Reviews131: 33–50.
38.
QinXLiuJJiaHet al. (2011) New evidence of agricultural activity and environmental change associated with the ancient Loulan kingdom, China, around 1500 years ago. The Holocene22(1): 53–61.
39.
RamseyCB (2009) Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon51(1): 337–360.
40.
ReimerPJBardEBaylissAet al. (2013) IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0–50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon55(4): 1869–1887.
41.
RodríguezMF (2000) Woody plant species used during the archaic period in the Southern Argentine Puna. Archaeobotany of Quebrada Seca 3. Journal of Archaeological Science27(4): 341–361.
42.
RodríguezMaF (2004) Woody plant resources in the Southern Argentine Puna: Punta de la Peña 9 archaeological site. Journal of Archaeological Science31(10): 1361–1372.
43.
SchwarzATurnerFLauterbachSet al. (2017) Mid- to late Holocene climate-driven regime shifts inferred from diatom, ostracod and stable isotope records from Lake Son Kol (Central Tian Shan, Kyrgyzstan). Quaternary Science Reviews177: 340–356.
44.
ShenHWuXTangZet al. (2015) Wood usage and fire veneration in the Pamir, Xinjiang, 2500 yr BP. PLoS ONE10(8): e0134847.
45.
SolominaOAlversonK (2004) High latitude Eurasian paleoenvironments: Introduction and synthesis. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology209(1–4): 1–18.
46.
SteinM (1921) Serindia: Detailed Report of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, 5 vols. London; Oxford: Clarendon Press.
47.
SteinM (1928) Innermost Asia: Detailed Report of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China, 4 vols. London; Oxford: Clarendon Press.
48.
SunNLiXZhouXet al. (2010) Early smelting recorded by charcoal fossils in Hexi Corridor, Gansu province – A environmental influence factor. Quaternary Sciences30(2): 319–325 (in Chinese).
49.
TaftLMischkeSWiechertUet al. (2014) Sclerochronological oxygen and carbon isotope ratios in Radix (Gastropoda) shells indicate changes of glacial meltwater flux and temperature since 4,200 cal yr BP at Lake Karakul, eastern Pamirs (Tajikistan). Journal of Paleolimnology52(1–2): 27–41.
50.
TangZMuGChenD (2009) Palaeoenvironment of mid- to late Holocene loess deposit of the southern margin of the Tarim Basin, NW China. Environmental Geology58(8): 1703–1711.
51.
WangB (1983) Excavations and preliminary study on Gumugou of Kongque River. Social Sciences in Xinjiang1: 117–128 (in Chinese).
52.
WangB (2009) An Archaeological Study on the Silk Road. Urumqi, China: Xinjiang People’s Publishing House (in Chinese).
53.
WangCLüHZhangJet al. (2014) Prehistoric demographic fluctuations in China inferred from radiocarbon data and their linkage with climate change over the past 50,000 years. Quaternary Science Reviews98: 45–59.
54.
WangSC (1996) The capital of Loulan and historical status of ancient Lop Nur region. The Western Regions Studies4: 43–53 (in Chinese).
55.
WangSC (1998) The abandonment of three major ancient ruins groups and environmental change in Tarim Basin. Quaternary Sciences18(1): 71–79 (in Chinese).
56.
WangSZ (2017) Introduction of xylonarchaeology. Agricultural Archaeology6: 7–12 (in Chinese).
57.
WangSZFangYZhaoZ (2012) Vegetation, paleoclimate and vegetation use during Longshan era: Case studies of anthracology of Wadian site in Henan province. Quaternary Sciences32(2): 226–235 (in Chinese).
58.
WangSZLiHZhangLet al. (2014) Tree exploitation and palaeoenvironment at Heishuiguo Xichengyi Site, Zhangye city, Gansu province – Revealed with excavated charcoal analysis (in Chinese). Quaternary Sciences34(1): 43–50.
59.
WolffCPlessenBDudashvilliASet al. (2016) Precipitation evolution of Central Asia during the last 5000 years. The Holocene27(1): 142–154.
60.
WuY (2017) A historical study on ‘Zhangza Qianren Cheng Yin’ (seal of an officer in Zhangza) newly found in Loulan (in Chinese). The Western Regions Studies3: 41–48.
61.
WuYTianXMuG (2016) A study on the seal newly found in Loulan area (in Chinese). The Western Regions Studies2: 19–23.
62.
WünnemannBChenFRiedelFet al. (2003) Holocene lake deposits of Bosten Lake, southern Xinjiang, China. Chinese Science Bulletin48(14): 1429.
63.
XiaXWangFZhaoY (2007) The Lop Nur of China. Beijing, China: Science Press (in Chinese).
64.
XiaoX (2006) A review of Loulan-Shanshan archaeological research. The Western Region Studies4: 82–92.
65.
Xinjiang Loulan Archaeology Team (XLAT) (1988a) A brief report on the excavation of tombs in Loulan urban. Relics7: 23–39 (in Chinese).
66.
Xinjiang Loulan Archaeology Team (XLAT) (1988b) A brief report on the investigation and excavation of Loulan City (in Chinese). Relics7: 1–22 (in Chinese).
67.
Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Bureau of Cultural Heritage (2015) Unmovable Relics of Bayingol Mongolian Autonomous Prefecture, vol. 2. Urumqi, China: Xinjiang Art and Photograph Press (in Chinese).
68.
XuBGuZQinXet al. (2017) Radiocarbon dating the ancient city of Loulan. Radiocarbon59: 1215–1226.
69.
Xuanzang (1985)(645, Tang Dynasty) Da Tang Xi Yu Ji. Beijing, China: Zhonghua Book Company (in Chinese).
70.
YangBBraeuningAYafengSet al. (2004) Evidence for a late Holocene warm and humid climate period and environmental characteristics in the arid zones of northwest China during 2.2 ∼ 1.8 kyr B.P. Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres109: D02105.
71.
YangBWangJBräuningAet al. (2009) Late Holocene climatic and environmental changes in arid central Asia. Quaternary International194(1–2): 68–78.
72.
YangXZhuZJaekelDet al. (2002) Late quaternary palaeoenvironment change and landscape evolution along the Keriya River, Xinjiang, China: The relationship between high mountain glaciation and landscape evolution in foreland desert regions. Quaternary International97: 155–166.
73.
YaoTThompsonLQinDet al. (1996a) Variations in temperature and precipitation in the past 2000 a on the Xizang (Tibet) Plateau – Guliya ice core record. Science in China (Series D)39(4): 425–433.
74.
YaoTDYangZHHuangCL (1996b) Preliminary research on the climatic and environmental changes by using the 2 ka Guliya ice core data. Chinese Science Bulletin41: 1103–1106.
75.
YaoX (1988) Structure of Main Chinese Woods. Beijing, China: China Forestry Press (in Chinese).
76.
YonenobuHItohT (2000) 14C dating of the Niya site in the Tarim Basin. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms172(1): 741–744.
77.
YuanGZhaoZ (1997) Relationship between the rise-fall of ancient Loulan City and environmental changes, Xinjiang. Arid Land Geography3: 7–12 (in Chinese).
78.
ZhangFWangTYYimitHet al. (2011) Hydrological changes and settlement migrations in the Keriya River delta in central Tarim Basin ca. 2.7–1.6 ka BP: Inferred from 14C and OSL chronology. Science China Earth Sciences54(12): 1971–1980.
79.
ZhangGWangSFergusonDet al. (2015) Ancient plant use and palaeoenvironmental analysis at the Gumugou Cemetery, Xinjiang, China: Implication from desiccated plant remains. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences9(2): 145–152.
80.
ZhangGWangYSpateMet al. (2017) Investigation of the diverse plant uses at the South Aisikexiaer Cemetery (~2700–2400 years bp) in the Hami Basin of Xinjiang, Northwest China. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. Epub ahead of print 13 November. DOI: 10.1007/s12520-017-0563-9.
81.
ZhangJHuangXWangZet al. (2018) A late-Holocene pollen record from the western Qilian Mountains and its implications for climate change and human activity along the Silk Road, Northwestern China. The Holocene28: 1141–1150.
82.
ZhangJLuHWuNet al. (2012) Palaeoenvironment and agriculture of ancient Loulan and Milan on the Silk Road. The Holocene23(2): 208–217.
83.
ZhongWXiongH (1999) Paleo-climatic and environmental development since about 4 ka B. P. and the relation with abandonments of ancient cities in Southern Xinjiang (in Chinese). Journal of Desert Research19(4): 343–353.
84.
ZhongWXueJShuQet al. (2007) Climatic change during the last 4000 years in the southern Tarim Basin, Xinjiang, northwest China. Journal of Quaternary Science22(7): 659–665.
85.
ZhouXLiB (1996) The research on the development and evolution of the oasis of Keria River in the Tarim Basin of Xinjiang. Yunnan Geographic Environment Research2: 44–57 (in Chinese).
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
