This paper presents a paleoenvironmental reconstruction of historical development in the area of the ancient harbor of Claudius based on micropaleontological and sedimentological data. Benthic foraminifera are reliable tools for this kind of research because they are sensitive to short-time environmental changes induced by both natural and anthropogenic events. By studying eight sediment cores collected from different sections of the harbor, it was possible to reconstruct a comprehensive picture of the harbor complex. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of foraminiferal associations and sedimentological data, along with radiocarbon dating, were useful to identify three key intervals in the history of the coastal area where the harbor developed. The first interval, located at the bottom of all cores, is characterized by a brackish water environment, corresponding to the formation of the first deltaic cusp of the Tiber River. The second interval is characterized by the harbor activities that developed after a general increase in water depth due to a diversion of the Tiber River mouth. The third interval marks the final phase of harbor activities and the subsequent filling of Claudius’ basin. However, a link with the inner Trajanus’ basin was maintained via the central part of the basin, which remained submerged longer, until the early Middle Ages.
AlbaniADSerandrei BarberoR (1990) I foraminiferi della Laguna e del Golfo di Venezia. Memorie di Scienze Geologiche42: 271–341.
2.
Almogi-LabinAPerelis-GrossoviczLRaabM (1992) Living Ammonia from a hypersaline inland pool, Dead Sea area, Israel. Journal of Foraminiferal Research22: 257–266.
3.
AmorosiAColalongoMLFioriniFFuscoFPasiniGVaianiSC. (2004a) Palaeogeographic and palaeoclimatic evolution of the Po Plain from 150-ky core records. Global and Planetary Change40: 55–78.
4.
AmorosiARicci LucchiMSartiGVaianiSCPrandinSMutiA (2004b) Late Quaternary sedimentary evolution of the Piombino alluvial plain (western Tuscany) as revealed by subsurface data. GeoActa3: 97–106.
5.
AntonioliFFerrantiLFontanaAAmorosiABondesanABraitenbergC. (2009) Holocene relative sea-level changes and vertical movements along the Italian and Istrian coastlines. Quaternary International206: 102–133.
6.
Arnaud-FassettaGCarreMBMaroccoRMaselli ScottiFPuglieseNZaccariaC. (2003) The site of Aquileia (Northeastern Italy): Example of fluvial geoarchaeology in a Mediterranean deltaic plain. Géomorphologie4: 227–246.
7.
BarmawidjajaDMJorissenFJPuskaricSVan der ZwaanGJ (1992) Microhabitat selection by benthic Foraminifera in the Northern Adriatic Sea. Journal of Foraminiferal Research22: 297–317.
8.
BellottiPCalderoniGCarboniMGDi BellaLTortoraPValeriP. (2007) Late Quaternary landscape evolution of the Tiber River delta plain (Central Italy): New evidence from pollen data, biostratigraphy and 14C dating. Zeitschrift fuer Geomorphologie Neues Funde4: 505–534.
9.
BellottiPCalderoniGDi RitaFD’OreficeMD’AmicoCEsuD. (2011) The Tiber River delta plain (Central Italy): Coastal evolution and implications for the ancient Ostia Roman settlement. The Holocene. doi: 10.1177/095968361140046410.1177/0959683611400464.
10.
BellottiPCarboniMGDi BellaLPalagiIValeriP (1994) Benthic foraminiferal assemblages in the depositional sequence of the Tiber Delta. In: MatteucciRCarboniMGPignattiJS (eds) Studies on Ecology and Paleoecology of Benthic Communities. Bollettino della Società Paleontologica Italiana, Special Volume 2: 29–40.
11.
BellottiPMatteiMTortoraPValeriP (2009) Geoarchaeological investigations in the area of the imperial harbors of Rome. Méditerranée112: 51–58.
12.
BergaminLDi BellaLFrezzaVDevotiSNisiMFSilenziS. (2006) Late Quaternary palaeoenvironmental evolution and sea-level changes at the Versilian coast (Tuscany, Italy): Micropalaeontological proxies. In:CoccioniRMarsiliA (eds) Proceedings of the Second and Third Italian Meetings of Environmental Micropalaeontology. Grzybozsky Foundation Special Publication11: 1–11.
13.
BernasconiMPMelisRPuglieseNStanleyJ-DBandelliA (2007) Faunal analyses in the interpretation of the submergence of substrates beneath Herakleion and Eastern Canopus. In: StanleyJ-D (ed.) Underwater Archaeology in the Canopic Region in Egypt, Geoarchaeology. Oxford: Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology, 59–86.
14.
BernasconiMPMelisRStanleyJ-D (2006) Benthic biofacies to interpret Holocene environmental changes and human impact in Alexandria’s Eastern Harbour, Egypt. The Holocene16: 1163–1176.
15.
BiniMChelliADuranteAMGervasiniLPappalardoM (2009) Geoarchaeological sea-level proxies from a silted up harbour: A case study of the Roman colony of Luni (northern Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy). Quaternary International206: 147–157.
16.
CarboniMGDi BellaL (1996) Morphological variation in the genus Ammonia Brünnich in the Plio/Pleistocene of the Sabina (Latium). In: CherchiA (ed.) Autoecology of Selected Fossil Organisms: Achievements and Problems. Bollettino della Società Paleontologica Italiana, Special Volume 3: 63–76.
17.
CarboniMGBergaminLDi BellaMGIamundoFPuglieseN (2002) Palaeoecological evidences from foraminifers and ostracods on Late Quaternary sea-level changes in the Ombrone river plain (central Tyrrhenian coast, Italy). Geobios24: 40–50.
18.
CarboniMGSucciMCBergaminLDi BellaLFrezzaVLandiniB (2009) Benthic foraminifera from two coastal lakes of southern Latium (Italy). Preliminary evaluation of environmental quality. Marine Pollution Bulletin59: 268–280.
19.
CastagnoliF (1963) Astura. Studi romani11: 637–644.
20.
CimermanFLangerMR (1991) Mediterranean foraminifera. Academia Scientiarum et Artium Slovenica30: 1–118.
21.
DebenayJPGuillouJJRedoisFGeslinE (2000) Distribution trends of foraminifera assemblages in paralic environments. In: MartinRE (ed.) Environmental Micropaleontology. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 39–67.
22.
DebenayJ-PMilletBAngelidisMO (2005) Relationships between foraminiferal assemblages and hydrodynamics in the Gulf of Kalloni, Greece. Journal of Foraminiferal Research35: 327–343.
23.
DonniciSSerandrei BarberoR (2002) The benthic foraminiferal communities of the northern Adriatic continental shelf. Marine Micropaleontology44: 93–123.
24.
FavryAGuelorgetODebenayJ-PPerthuisotJ-P (1998) Distribution des peuplements de foraminifères actuels dans une lagune méditerranéenne: l’étang du Prévost. Vie et milieu48: 41–53.
25.
FioriniFVaianiSC (2001) Benthic foraminifer and transgressive-regressive cycles in the Late Quaternary subsurface sediments of the Po Plain near Ravenna (Northern Italy). Bollettino della Società Paleontologica Italiana40: 357–403.
26.
FishbeinEPattersonT (1993) Error-weighted maximumlikelihood (EWML): A new statistically based method to cluster quantitative micropaleontological data. Journal of Paleontology67: 475–486.
27.
FisherRACorbetASWilliamsCB (1943) The relationship between the number of species and the number of individuals in a random samples of an animal population. Journal of Animal Ecology12: 42–58.
28.
FrezzaVCarboniMG (2009) Distribution of recent foraminiferal assemblages near the Ombrone River mouth (Northern Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy). Revue de Micropaléontologie52: 43–66.
29.
GiraudiC (2004) Evoluzione tardo-olocenica del delta del Tevere. Il Quaternario17: 477–492.
30.
GiraudiCParoliLRicciGTataC (2006) Portus (Fiumicino – Roma) Il colmamento sedimentario dei bacini del Porto di Claudio e Traiano nell’ambito dell’evoluzione ambientale tardo-antica e medievale del delta del Tevere. Archeologia Medievale33: 49–60.
31.
GiraudiCTataCParoliL (2009) Late Holocene evolution of Tiber River Delta and geoarchaeology of Claudius and Trajan Harbor, Rome. Geoarchaeological International Journal24: 371–382.
32.
GiulianiCF (1992) Note sulla topografia di Portus. In: MannucciV (ed.) Il parco Archeologico-Naturalistico del Porto di Traiano. Roma: Metodo e progetto, 29–44.
33.
GoiranJPTronchèreHSalomonFCarbonelPDjerbiHOgnardC (2010) Paleoenvironmental reconstruction of the ancient harbors of Rome: Claudius and Trajan’s marine harbors on the Tiber delta. Quaternary International216: 3–13.
34.
HammerØHarperDATRyanPD (2001) PAST: Paleontological Statistics Software Package for Education and Data Analysis. Palaeontologia Electronica4: 1–9.
35.
JorissenFJ (1988) Benthic foraminifera from the Adriatic Sea: Principles of phenotypic variations. Utrecht Micropaleontological Bulletin37: 1–176.
36.
KraftJCRappGRKayanILuceJV (2003) Harbor areas at ancient Troy: Sedimentology and geomorphology complement Homer’s Iliad. Geology31: 163–166.
37.
LambeckKAnzideiMAntonioliFBeniniAEspositoA (2004) Sea level in Roman time in the Central Mediterranean and implications for recent change. Earth and Planetary Science Letters224: 563–575.
LoeblichARJrTappanH (1987) Foraminiferal Genera and their Classification. New York: van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
40.
MarraFCarboniGDi BellaLFaccennaCFunicielloRRosaC (1995) Il substrato plio-pleistocenico nell’area romana. Bollettino della Società Geologica Italiana114: 195–214.
41.
MarrinerNMorhangeC (2007) Geoscience of ancient Mediterranean harbours. Earth-Science Reviews80: 137–194.
42.
MarrinerNMorhangeCSaghieh-BeydounM (2008) Geoarchaeology of Beirut’s ancient harbour, Phoenicia. Journal of Archaeological Science35: 2495–2516.
43.
MazziniIAnadonPBarbieriMCastorinaFFerreliLGliozziE. (1999) Late Quaternary sea-level changes along the Tyrrhenian coast near Orbetello (Tuscany, Central Italy): Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction using ostracods. Marine Micropaleontology37: 289–311.
44.
MendesIGonzalesRDiasJMALoboFMartinsV (2004) Factors influencing recent benthic foraminifera distribution on the Guadiana shelf (Southwestern Iberia). Marine Micropaleontology51: 171–192.
45.
MurrayJW (1968) Living foraminifers of lagoons in the estuaries. Micropaleontology14: 435–455.
46.
MurrayJW (1991) Ecology and Paleoecology of Benthic Foraminifera. London: Longman Scientific and Technical.
47.
MurrayJW (2006) Ecology and Application of Benthic Foraminifera. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
48.
ParkerWCArnoldAJ (1999) Quantitative methods of analysis in foraminiferal ecology. In: Sen GuptaBK (ed.) Modern Foraminifera. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 71–89.
49.
PattersonTFishbeinE (1989) Re-examination of the statistical methods used to determine the number of points counts needed for micropaleontological quantitative research. Journal of Paleontology67: 475–486.
50.
ReinhardtEGGoodmanBNBoyceJILopezGvan HengstumPRinkWJ. (2006) The tsunami of 13 December A.D. 115 and the destruction of Herod the Great’s harbour at Caesarea Maritima, Israel. Geology34: 1061–1064.
51.
ReinhardtEGPattersonRTBlenkinsopJRabanA (1998) Paleoenvironmental evolution of the inner basin of ancient harbor at Caesarea Maritima, Israel: Foraminiferal and Sr isotopic evidence. Revue de Paléobiologie17: 1–21.
52.
ReinhardtEGPattersonRTSchröder-AdamsCJ (1994) Geoarchaeology of the ancient harbour site of Caesarea Maritima, Israel: Evidence from sedimentology and paleoecology of benthic foraminifera. Journal of Foraminiferal Research24: 37–48.
53.
RossiVVaianiSC (2008) Benthic foraminiferal evidence of sediment supply changes and fluvial drainage reorganization in Holocene deposits of the Po Delta, Italy. Marine Micropaleontology69: 106–118.
54.
Ruiz MuñozFGonzález-RegaladoMLBorrego FloresJMoralesJA (1996) Distribución y ecologia de los Foraminíferos y Ostrácodos actuales del estuario mesomareal del Río Guardiana (SO España). Geobios29: 513–528.
55.
SamirAM (2000) The response of benthic foraminifera in ostracods to various pollution sources: A study from two lagoon in Egypt. Journal of Foraminiferal Research30: 83–98.
56.
ScrinariV (1960) Strutture portuali relative al ‘Porto di Claudio’ messo in luce durante i lavori dell’Aeroporto intercontinentale di Fiumicino (Roma). Rassegna dei Lavori Pubblici3: 173–190.
57.
SgarrellaFMoncharmont ZeiM (1993) Benthic Foraminifera of the Gulf of Naple (Italy): Systematics and autoecology. Bollettino della Società Paleontologica Italiana32: 145–264.
58.
TestaguzzaO (1970) Portus. Illustrazione dei porti di Claudio e Traiano e della città di Porto a Fiumicino. Roma: Julia editrice.
59.
VaničekVJuračićMBajraktarevićZĆosovićV (2000) Benthic foraminiferal assemblages in a restricted environment – An example from the Mljet Lakes (Adritic Sea, Croatia). Geologica Croatica53: 269–279.
60.
VéronAGoiranJPMorhangeCMarrinerNEmpereurJY (2006) Pollutant lead reveals the pre-Hellenistic occupation and ancient growth of Alexandria, Egypt. Geophysical Research Letters33: L06409, doi:10.1029/2006GL02582410.1029/2006GL025824.
61.
YankoVKronfeldJFlexerA (1994) Response of benthic foraminifera to various pollution sources: Implications for pollution monitoring. Journal of Foraminiferal Research24: 1–17.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
