In this study archaeology, history and palaeoecology (modern and fossil data sets of pollen and non-pollen palynomorphs) were used to reconstruct small-scale pastoral activities in the Pyrenees Mountains during the last two millennia. Modern pollen assemblages from the major vegetation units (both natural and anthropogenic) are studied on one restricted watershed area. A correlative model (RDA) of 61 modern pollen spectra and 35 external variables distinguishes two groups of taxa, providing information on the nature and spatial extent of human impact on the landscape. The first pool indicates local pastoral activities, and the second one implies regional input from outside the studied watershed, and is not characteristic of a specific land use. These pools are described as 'Local Pastoral Pollen Indicators' (LPPI) for this particular mountain region on crystalline bedrock and 'Regional Human Activities Pollen Indicators' (RHAPI). The modern data set is used to aid interpretation of the local pollen sequence of Sourzay that covers the last 2000 calendar years BP, using RDA reconstructions, and best modern analogues as a means of comparing modern and fossil spectra. The study also demonstrates agreement between the independent interpretations of two fossil proxies, LPPI and coprophilous fungi.
Behre, K.E.1981: The interpretation of anthropogenic indicators in pollen diagrams. Pollen et Spores23, 225-45.
2.
Berglund, B.E., editor 1991: The cultural landscape during 6000 years in southern Sweden - the Ystad Project . Munksgaard International.
3.
Blackford, J.J. and Innes, J.B.2006: Linking current environments and processes to fungal spore assemblages: surface NPM data from woodland environments. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology141, 179-87.
4.
Blot, J.1995: Contribution à l'étude des cercles de pierres en Pays Basque de France. Bulletin de la Societe Prehistorique Française92, 525-48.
5.
Bradshaw, R.H.W.1981: Modern pollen representation factors for woods in south-west England. Journal of Ecology69, 45-70.
6.
Braun-Blanquet, J.1964: Pflanzensoziologie. Grundzüge der Vegetationskunde . Springer, 865 pp.
7.
Brocas, D. and Legaz, A.2005: La montagne basque: sources et ressources. Les paturages et les bois dans les Pyrenees occidentales (XIe-XIXe s), Les ressources naturelles des Pyrenees du Moyen Age a l'époque modeme. Exploitation, gestion et appropriation . In Congrès international RESOPYR . Presses Universitaires de Perpignan, volumes 49-69.
8.
Buurman, J., van Geel, B. and van Reenen, G.B.A.1995: Palaeoecological investigations of a Late Bronze Age watering-place at Bovenkarspel, the Netherlands. In Herngreen, G.F.W. and van der Valk, L., editors, Neogene and Quaternary geology of north-west Europe. Mededelingen Rijks Geologische Dienst52, 249-70.
9.
Carozza, L., Galop, D., Marembert, F. and Monna, F.2005: Quel statut pour les espaces de Montagnes durant 1'âge du Bronze? Regards croisés sur les approches sociétés-environnement dans les Pyrenees occidentales. Documents d'Archéologie Méridionale28, 7-23.
10.
Court-Picon, M., Buttler, A. and de Beaulieu, J.-L.2005: Modem pollen-vegetation relationships in the Champsaur valley (French Alps) and their potential in the interpretation of fossil pollen records of past cultural landscapes. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology135, 13-39.
11.
- 2006: Modern pollen/vegetation/land-use relationships in mountain environments: an example from the Champsaur valley (French Alps). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany15, 151.
12.
Davies, A.L. and Tipping, R.2004: Sensing small-scale human activity in the palaeoecological record: fine spatial resolution pollen analyses from Glen Affric, northern Scotland. The Holocene14, 233-45.
13.
Davis, O.K.1984: Pollen frequencies reflect vegetation patterns in a Great Basin (USA) mountain range. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology40, 295-315.
14.
- 1987: Spores of the dung fungus Sporormiella: increased abundance in historic sediments and before Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinction. Quaternary Research28, 290-94.
15.
Davis, O.K. and Shafer, D.S.2006: Sporormiella fungal spores, apalynological means of detecting herbivore density. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology237, 40-50.
16.
Davis, O.K. and Turner, R.M.1986: Palynological evidence for the historic expansion of Juniper and desert shrubs in Arizona, U.S.A. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology49, 177-93.
17.
de Arvizu, F.1992: El conflicto de los Alduides (Pirineo navarro), Gobierno de Navarra. Pampelune, 427 pp.
18.
Faegri, K. and Iversen, J.1989: Textbook of pollen analysis. Wiley , 328 pp.
19.
Fortun, L.J.1994: Leire, un señorio monástico en navarra (siglos LX-XIX), Gobierno de Navarra. Pampelune, 926 pp.
20.
Gaillard, M.-J.2007: Detecting human impact in the pollen record. In Elias, S.A., editor, Encyclopedia of Quaternary science. Elsevier, University of London, 2570-95.
21.
Gaillard, M.-J., Birks, H.J.B., Emanuelsson, U. and Berglund, B.E.1992: Modern pollen/land-use relationships as an aid in the reconstruction of past land-uses and cultural landscapes: an example from south Sweden. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany1, 3-17.
22.
Gaillard, M.-J., Birks, H.J.B., Emanuelsson, U., Karlsson, S., Lageras, P. and Olausson, D.1994: Application of modern pollen/land-use relationships to the interpretation of pollen diagrams- reconstuctions of land-use history in south Sweden, 3000-0 BP. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology82, 47-73.
23.
Galop, D.1998: La forêt, l'homme et le troupeau dans les Pyrenees. 6000 ans d'histoire de l'environnement entre Garonne et Méditerranée. Contribution palynologique. GEODE - Laboratoire d'écologie terrestre - Framespa, 285 pp.
24.
Galop, D., Mazier, F., Lopez-Saez, J.-A. and Vanniere, B.2003: Palynologie et histoire des activites humaines en milieu montagnard. Bilan provisoire des recherches et nouvelles orientations méthodologiques sur le versant nord des Pyrénées. Archéologie du midi medieval21, 15970.
25.
Galop, D., Rendu, C., Barcet, H., Buttler, A., Campmajo, P., Cugny, C., Gauthier, E., Legaz, A., Lopez-Saez, J.-A., Mazier, F., Metailie, J.-P., Dominique, S. and Vanniere, B.2004: Paléoenvironement et archéologie pastorale. Propositions méthodologiques pour une approche intégrée des modalités de l'anthropisation en haute montagne pyrénéenne du Néolithique à l'actuel. UMR 6565 CNRS-Université de FrancheComté, 70 pp.
26.
Gillet, F. and Gallandat, J.-D.1996: Integrated synusial phytosociology : some notes on a new, multiscalar approach to vegetation analysis. Journal of Vegetation Science7, 13-18.
27.
Gillet, F., De Foucault, B. and Julve, P.1991: La phytosociologie synusiale intégrée: objets et concepts . Candollea46, 315-40.
28.
Gillet, F., Besson, O. and Gobat, J.-M.2002: PATUMOD: a compartment model of vegetation dynamics in wooded pastures. Ecological Modelling147, 267-90.
29.
Goyhenetche, M.1998: Histoire générale du Pays basque. Préhistoire-Epoque romaine-Moyen-Âge . Donostia, 492 pp.
30.
Graf, M.-T. and Chmura, G.L.2006: Development of modern analogues for natural, mowed and grazed grasslands using pollen assemblages and coprophilous fungi. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology141, 139-49.
31.
Grimm, E.1987: CONISS: a Fortan 77 program for stratigraphically constrained cluster analysis by the method of incremental sum of squares. Computers and Geosciences13, 13-35.
32.
Guiot, J.1990: Methodology of the last climatic cycle reconstruction from pollen data. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology80, 49-69.
33.
Guiot, J. and Goeury, C.1996: PPPbase, a software for statistical analysis of paleoecological data. Dendrochronologia14, 295-300.
34.
Hausmann, S., Lotter, A.F., van Leeuwen, J.F.N., Ohlendorf, C., Lemcke, G., Grönlund, E. and Sturm, M.2002: Interactions of climate and land use documented in the varved sediments of Seebergsee in the Swiss Alps. The Holocene12, 279-89.
35.
Hicks, S. and Birks, H.J.B.1996: Numerical analysis of modern and fossil pollen spectra as a tool for elucidating the nature of fine-scale human activities in boreal areas. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany5, 257-72.
36.
Hjelle, K.L.1998: Herb pollen representation in surface moss samples from mown meadows and pastures in Western Norway. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany7, 79-96.
37.
- 1999a: Use of modern pollen samples and estimated pollen representation factors as aids in the interpretation of cultural activity in local pollen diagrams. Norwegian Archaeological Review32, 19-39.
38.
- 1999b: Modern pollen assemblages from mown and grazed vegetation types in western Norway. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology107, 55-81.
39.
Iversen, J.1964: Plant indicators of climate, soil, and other factors during the Quaternary. Report of the VIth International Congress on Quaternary Warsaw 1961. Vol. II: Palaeobotanical Section, 421-28.
40.
Jackson, S.T. and Williams, J.W.2004: Modern analogs in Quaternary paleoecology: here today, gone yesterday, gone tomorrow ?Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Science32, 495-537.
41.
Jacobson, G.L. and Bradshaw, R.H.W.1981: The selection of sites for paleovegetational studies. Quaternary Research16, 80-96.
42.
Kohler, F., Gillet, F., Progin, M.-A., Gobat, J.-M. and Buttler, A.2004: Seasonal dynamics of plant species at fine scale in wooded pastures. Community Ecology5, 7-17.
43.
Legaz, A.2005: Système pastoraux et société en Basse-Navarre du XIII au XVIII siècle: construction et transitions. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Toulouse2.
44.
Lopez-Saez, J.A., Galop, D., Iriarte, M.J. and Lopez-Merino, L.2007: Paleoambiente y antropización en los Pirineos de Navarra durante el holoceno medio (VI-IV milenios cal. BC): una perspectiva palinológica. Veleia24-25, 645-53.
45.
Marembert, F.2000: La grotte de Mikelauen-Ziloa. In Aquitaine, S., editor, Paléoenvironnement et anthropisation de la montagne Basque Ministère de la culture. CNRS, 71-81.
46.
Mazier, F., Galop, D., Brun, C. and Buttler, A.2006: Modern pollen assemblages from grazed vegetation in the western Pyrenees, France: a numerical tool for more precise reconstruction of past cultural landscapes. The Holocene16, 91-103.
47.
Metailie, J.-P.1981: Le feu pastoral dans les Pyrénées centrales (Barousse, Oueil, Larboust). CNRS, 195 pp.
48.
Metailie, J.-P. and Le Caro, P.2000: Les lisières paturees. Premiers elements pour une analyse des dynamiques sylvo-pastorales dans les paturages du massif d'Iraty . In Aquitaine, S., editor, Paleoenvironnement et anthropisation de la montagne Basque. Ministère de la culture- CNRS, 7-13.
49.
Miranda, G.1993: Roncesvalles. Trayectoria patrimonial (siglos XII-XIX), Gobierno de Navarra. Pampelune, 297 pp.
50.
Miras, Y., Laggoun-Defarge, F., Guenet, P. and Richard, H.2004: Multi-disciplinary approach to changes in agro-pastoral activities since the Subboreal in the surroundings of the 'Narse d'Espinasse' . Vegetation History and Archaeobotany13, 91-103.
51.
Moore, P.D., Webb, J.A. and Collinson, M.E.1991: Pollen analysis. Blackwell Science , 216 pp.
52.
Mougin, V.2002: Foret et métallurgie en Pays basque nord. Analyses anthracologique et dendrochronologique des charbonnières du massif d'Iraty . Unpublished Masters thesis, University of Franche-Comté .
53.
Oeggl, K.1994: The palynological record of human impact on highland zone ecosystems. In Biagi, P. and Nandris, J., editors, Highland zone exploitation in Southern Europe. Monografie di 'Natura Bresciana'20, 107-22.
54.
Olff, H. and Ritchie, M.E.1998: Effects of herbivores on grassland plant diversity . Trends in Ecology and Evolution13, 261-65.
55.
Overpeck, J.T., Webb, I.T. and Prentice, I.C.1985: Quantitative interpretation of fossil pollen spectra: dissimilarity coefficients and the method of modern analogs. Quaternary Research23, 87-108.
56.
Prentice, I.C.1980: Multidimensional scaling as a research tool in Quaternary palynology: a review of theory and methods. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology31, 71-104.
57.
- 1988: Records of vegetation in time and space: the principles of pollen analysis. In Huntley, B. and Webb, T., III, editors, Vegetation history. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 17-42.
58.
Rasanen, S.2001: Tracing and interpreting fine-scale human impact in nothem Fennoscandia with the aid of modem pollen analogues. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany10, 211-18.
59.
Reille, M.1992-98: Pollen et spores d'Europe et d'Afrique du Nord . Laboratoire de Botanique Historique et Palynologiepp.
60.
Reimer, P.J., Baillie, M.G.L., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J.W., Bertrand, C.J.H., Blackwell, P.G., Buck, C.E., Burr, G.S., Cutler, K.B., Damon, P.E., Edwards, R.L., Fairbanks, R.G., Friedrich, M., Guilderson, T.P., Hogg, A.G., Hughen, K.A., Kromer, B., McCormac, G., Manning, S., Ramsey, C.B., Reimer, R.W., Remmele, S., Southon, J.R., Stuiver, M., Talamo, S., Taylor, F.W., van der Plicht, J. and Weyhenmeyer, C.E.2004: IntCal04 terrestrial radiocarbon age calibration, 26-0 ka BP. Radiocarbon46, 1029-58.
61.
Rendu, C.2003: La montagne d'Enveig. Une estive pyrénéenne dans la longue duree. Perpignan, 606 pp.
62.
Rendu, C., Campmajo, P., Sordoillet, D. and Legaz, A.2004: Archeologie du pastoralisme. In Galop, D., Rendu, C., Barcet, H., Buttler, A., Campmajo, P., Cugny, C., Gauthier, E., Legaz, A., Lopez-Saez, J.-A., Mazier, F., Métailié, J.-P., Dominique, S. and Vannière, B., editors, Paléoenvironement et archéologie pastorale. Propositions méthodologiques pour une approche intégrée des modalités de l'anthropisation en haute montagne pyrénéenne du Néolithique à l'actuel. UMR 6565 CNRS-Université de Franche-Comté, 36-39.
63.
Schweitzer, P.N.1994: ANALOG: a program for estimating paleoclimate parameters using the method of modern analogs. U.S. Geological Survey Open-file Report94-645.
64.
Sjogren, P. and Lamentowicz, M.2008: Human and climatic impact on mires: a case study of Les Ambumex mire, Swiss Jura Mountains. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany17, 185-97.
65.
Stuiver, M., Reimer, P.J., Bard, E., Beck, J.W., Burr, G.S., Hughen, K.A., Kromer, B., McCormac, G., van der Plicht, J. and Spurk, M.1998: Intcal98 radiocarbon age calibration, 24 000-0 cal BP . Radiocarbon40, 1041-83.
66.
Sugita, S.1993: A model of pollen source area for an entire lake surface . Quaternary Research39, 239-44.
67.
- 1994: Pollen representation of vegetation in quaternary sediments : theory and method in patchy vegetation. Journal of Ecology82, 881-97.
68.
- 2007a: Theory of quantitative reconstruction of vegetation. I: pollen from large lakes REVEALS regional vegetation composition. The Holocene17, 229-41.
69.
- 2007b: Theory of quantitative reconstruction of vegetation II: all you need is LOVE. The Holocene17, 243-57.
70.
Telford, RJ, Heegaard, E. and Birks, H.J.B.2004: The intercept is a poor estimate of a calibrated radiocarbon age. The Holocene14, 296-98.
71.
Ter Braak, C.J.F. and Prentice, C.I.1988: A theory of gradient analysis. Advances in Ecological Research18, 271-317.
72.
Ter Braak, C.J.F. and Smilauer, P.1998: CANOCO reference manual. User's guide to Canoco for Windows. Software for canonical community ordination (version 4). Centre for BiometryWageningen, 352 pp.
73.
van Geel, B.1978: A palaeoecological study of Holocene peat bog section in Germany and The Netherlands, based on the analysis of pollen, spores and macro- and micro-scopic remains of fungi, algae, cormophytes and animals. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology25, 1-120.
74.
van Geel, B. and Aptroot, A.2006: Fossil ascomycetes in Quaternary deposits. Nova Hedwigia82, 313-29.
75.
van Geel, B., Buurman, J., Brinkkemper, O., Schelvis, J. and Aptroot, A.2003: Environmental reconstruction of a Roman Period settlement site in Uitgeest (The Netherlands), with special reference to coprophilous fungi. Journal of Archaeological Science30, 873-83.
76.
van Geel, B., Zazula, G.D. and Schweger, C.E.2007: Spores of coprophilous fungi from under the Dawson tephra (25,300 14C years BP), Yukon Territory, northwestern Canada. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology252, 481-85.
77.
Wahl, E.R.2004: A general framework for determining cutoff values to select pollen analogs with dissimilarity metrics in the modern analog technique . Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology128, 263-80.
78.
Wehrli, M., Tinner, W. and Amman, B.2007: 16 000 years of vegetation and settlement history from Egelsee (Menzingen, central Switzerland). The Holocene17, 747-61.
79.
Wright, H.E.J.1967: The use of surface samples in quaternary pollen analysis . Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology2, 321-30.
