The extent and function of coastal mangrove ecosystems are likely to be influenced by future changes in sea level. Multiple proxies of past mangrove ecosystems preserved in a 780 cm long peat core (TCC2) taken from Twin Cays, Belize, record palaeoecological changes since ~8000 cal. yr BP. The proxies included pollen and the stable-isotope (C, N and O) compositions of mangrove leaf fragments. Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove) has been dominant at this site on Twin Cays for over ~8000 years. Variations in δ13 C and δ15N suggest past changes in stand structure between dwarf, transition and tall R. mangle through the Holocene. Marked changes in the δ18O (up to ~4‰) of mangrove leaf fragments throughout TCC2 most likely record variations in the proportion of seawater versus precipitation taken up by past mangroves, reflecting the degree of inundation of the site with seawater resulting from changes in the rate of Holocene sea-level rise. Notably, a decline in peat accumulation rate at ~7200 cal. yr BP correlates with a decrease in the rate of rise in sea level. This was not accompanied by a marked change in the pollen assemblages. However, changes in assemblage composition began to occur ~6300 cal. yr BP, with an increase in Myrsine-type and Avicennia germinans (black mangrove) pollen. An increase in the δ18O between 6100 and 5300 cal. yr BP, which correlates with other records from Central America, indicates a significant increase in the rate of rise in sea level.
Alcalaherrera, J.A., Jacob, J.S., Castillo, M.L.M. and Neck, R.W.1994: Holocene paleosalinity in a Maya wetland, Belize, inferred from the microfaunal assemblage. Quaternary Research41, 121—30.
2.
Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna and International Arctic Science Committee 2004: Arctic impact assessment. Univeristy of Cambridge. Angulo, R.J., Lessa, G.C. and de Souza, M.C. 2006: A critical review of mid- to late-Holocene sea-level fluctuations on the eastern Brazilian coastline. Quaternary Science Reviews25, 486—506.
3.
Balick, M.J., Nee, M.H. and Atha, D.E.2001: Checklist of the vascular plants of Belize: with common names and uses. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden.
4.
Behling, H. and da Costa, M.L.2001: Holocene vegetational and coastal environmental changes from the Lago Crispim record in north-eastern Para State, eastern Amazonia . Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology114, 145—55.
5.
Behling, H., Cohen, M.C.L. and Lara, R.J.2001: Studies on Holocene mangrove ecosystem dynamics of the Braganca Peninsula in north-eastern Para, Brazil. Palaeogeography PalaeoclimatologyPalaeoecology167, 225—42.
6.
Benway, H.M. and Mix, A.C.2004: Oxygen isotopes, upper-ocean salinity, and precipitation sources in the eastern tropical Pacific. Earth and Planetary Science Letters224, 493—507.
7.
Blanchon, P.2005: Comments on `Corrected western Atlantic sea-level curve for the last 11,000 years based on calibrated C-14 dates from Acropora palmata framework and intertidal mangrove peat' by Toscano and Macintyre. Coral Reefs 24, 183—86.
8.
Blanchon, P. and Shaw, J.1995: Reff drowning during the last deglaciation: evidence for catastrophic sea-level rise and ice-sheet collapse. Geology23, 4—8.
9.
Blasco, F.1984: Mangrove evolution and palynology. In Snedaker, S.C. and Snedaker, J.G., editors, The mangrove ecosystem: research methods . United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 36—49.
10.
Bowen, G.J., Wassenaar, L.I. and Hobson, K.A.2005: Global application of stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopes to wildlife forensics. Oecologia143, 337—48.
11.
Cahoon, D.R., Hensel, P., Rybczyk, J., McKee, K.L., Proffitt, C.E. and Perez, B.C. 2003: Mass tree mortality leads to mangrove peat collapse at Bay Islands, Honduras after Hurricane Mitch. Journal of Ecology91, 1093—105.
12.
Cameron, C.C. and Palmer, C.A.1995: The mangrove peat of the Tobacco Range Islands, Belize Barrier Reef, central America. Atoll Research Bulletin431, 1—32.
13.
Chmura, G.L., Anisfeld, S.C., Cahoon, D.R. and Lynch, J.C.2003: Global carbon sequestration in tidal, saline wetland soils . Global Biogeochemical Cycles17, 15—27.
14.
Curtis, J.H., Hodell, D.A. and Brenner, M.1996: Climate variability on the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico) during the past 3500 years, and implications for Maya Cultural Evolution. Quaternary Research46, 37—47.
15.
Curtis, J.H., Brenner, M., Hodell, D.A., Balser, R.A., Islebe, G.A. and Hooghiemstra, H.1998: A multi-proxy study of Holocene environmental change in the Maya Lowlands of Peten, Guatemala. Journal of Paleolimnology19, 139—59.
16.
Danielsen, F., Sorensen, M.K., Olwig, M.F., Selvam, V., Parish, F., Burgess, N.D., Hiraishi, T., Karunagaran, V.M., Rasmussen, M.S., Hansen, L.B., Quarto, A. and Suryadiputra, N.2005: The Asian tsunami: a protective role for coastal vegetation. Science 310, 643.
17.
Dittmar, T., Hertkorn, N., Kattner, G. and Lara, R.J.2006: Mangroves, a major source of dissolved organic carbon to the oceans. Global Biogeochemical Cycles20, 22—34.
18.
Ellison, A.M. and Farnsworth, E.J.1997: Simulated sea level change alters anatomy, physiology, growth and reproduction of red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.). Oecologia112, 435—46.
19.
Feller, I.C.1995: Effects of nutrient enrichment on growth and herbivory of dwarf red mangrove (Rhizophora Mangle). Ecological Monographs65, 477—505.
20.
——— 2002: The role of herbivory by wood-boring insects in mangrove ecosystems in Belize. Oikos97, 167—76.
21.
Ficken, K.J., Li, B., Swain, D.L. and Eglinton, G.2000: An n-alkane proxy for the sedimentary input of submerged/floating freshwater aquatic macrophytes. Organic Geochemistry31, 745—49.
22.
Garcia, E. and Holtermann, K.1998: Calabash Caye, Turneffe Islands Atoll, Belize. In Kjerfve, B., editor, Caricomp: Caribbean coral reef, seagrass and mangrove sites. Coastal Region and Small Island Paper, 67—77.
23.
Gischler, E.2006: Comment on `Corrected western Atlantic sea-level curve for the last 11,000 years based on calibrated 14C dates from Acropora palmata framework and intertidal peat' by Toscano and Macintyre. Coral Reefs 22: 257—270 (2003), and their response in Coral Reefs 24: 187—190 (2005). Coral Reefs 25, 273—79.
24.
Gischler, E. and Hudson, J.H.2004: Holocene development of the Belize Barrier Reef. Sedimentary Geology164, 223—36.
25.
Gischler, E. and Oschmann, W.2005: Historical climate variation in Belize (Central America) as recorded in scleractinian coral skeletons. Palaios20, 159—74.
26.
Gischler, E., Hauser, I., Heinrich, K. and Scheitel, U.2003: Characterization of depositional environments in isolated carbonate platforms based on benthic foraminifera, Belize, Central America . Palaios18, 236—55.
27.
Grimm, E.C.1987: CONISS: a Fortran 77 program for stratigraphically constrained cluster analysis by the method of the incremental sum of squares. Computer and Geosciences13, 13—35.
28.
Halley, R.B., Shinn, E.A., Hudson, J.H. and Lidz, B.1977: Recent and relict topography of Boo Bee patch reef, Belize . Proceedings of the 3rd International Coral Reef Symposium 2, 29—35.
29.
Hodell, D.A., Curtis, J.H., Jones, G.A., Higueragundy, A., Brenner, M., Binford, M.W. and Dorsey, K.T.1991: Reconstruction of Caribbean climate change over the past 10,500 years. Nature352, 790—93.
30.
Hodell, D.A., Curtis, J.H. and Brenner, M.1995: Possible role of climate in the collapse of classic Maya civilization. Nature375, 391—94.
31.
Ishshalomgordon, N., Lin, G.H. and Sternberg, L.D.L.1992: Isotopic fractionation during cellulose synthesis in 2 mangrove species — salinity effects. Phytochemistry 31, 2623—26.
32.
Islebe, G.A., Hooghiemstra, H., Brenner, M., Curtis, J.H. and Hodell, D.A.1996: A Holocene vegetation history from lowland Guatemala. The Holocene6, 265—71.
33.
Jacob, J.S. and Hallmark, C.T.1996: Holocene stratigraphy of Cobweb Swamp, a Maya wetland in northern Belize. Geological Society of America Bulletin108, 883—91.
34.
Kathiresan, K. and Rajendran, N.2005: Coastal mangrove forests mitigated tsunami. EstuarineCoastal and Shelf Science65, 601—606.
35.
Koltes, K.H., Tschirky, J.J. and Feller, I.C.1998: Carrie Bow Cay, Belize. In Kjerfve, B., editor, CARICOMP — Caribbean coral reef, seagrass, and mangrove sites. Coastal region and small island papers3, United Nations, 79—94.
36.
Leyden, B.W.1987: Man and climate in the Maya lowlands. Quaternary Research28, 407—17.
37.
——— 2002: Pollen evidence for climatic variability and cultural disturbance in the Maya lowlands. Ancient Mesoamerica13, 85—101.
38.
Lin, G.H. and Sternberg, L.D.L.1993: Effects of salinity fluctuation on photosynthetic gas-exchange and plant-growth of the red mangrove (Rhizophora-Mangle L). Journal of Experimental Botany 44, 9—16.
39.
——— 1994: Utilization of surface-water by red mangrove (Rhizophora-Mangle L) — an isotopic study. Bulletin of MarineScience54, 94—102.
40.
Lovelock, C.E., Ball, M.C., Choat, B., Engelbrecht, B.M.J., Holbrook, N.M. and Feller, I.C.2006: Linking physiological processes with mangrove forest structure: phosphorus deficiency limits canopy development, hydraulic conductivity and photosynthetic carbon gain in dwarf Rhizophora mangle. PlantCell and Environment29, 793—802.
41.
Maa, C.J.W., Wang, H.J. and Lin, H.J.2006: Impacts of catastrophic earthquakes on the insect communities in estuarine mangroves, Northern Taiwan. Biodiversity and Conservation 15, 429—41.
42.
Markgraf, V.1993: Climatic history of Central and South America since 18,000 yr B.P.: comparison of pollen records and model simulations. In Wright, H.E., Kutzbach, J.E., Webb, T., III, Ruddiman, W.F., Street-Perrott, F.A.Bartlein, P.J., editors, Global climates since the last glacial maximum. University of Minnesota Press, 357—85.
43.
McCarroll, D. and Loader, N.J.2004: Stable isotopes in tree rings. Quaternary Science Reviews23, 771—801.
44.
McKee, K.L. and Faulkner, P.L. 2000a: Mangrove peat analysis and reconstruction of vegetation histroy at the Pelican Cays, Belize. Atoll Research Bulletin468, 45—58.
45.
——— 2000b: Restoration of biogeochemical function in mangrove forests . Restoration Ecology8, 247—59.
46.
McKee, K.L., Feller, I.C., Popp, M. and Wanek, W. 2002: Mangrove isotopic (delta N-15 and delta C-13) fractionation across a nitrogen vs. phosphorus limitation gradient. Ecology83, 1065—75.
47.
McKillop, H.2002: Salt: white gold of the Ancient Maya. Univeristy Press of Florida.
48.
——— 2005: Finds in Belize document Late Classic Maya salt making and canoe transport. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102, 5630—34.
49.
Pascarella, J.B.1998: Hurricane disturbance, plant—animal interactions, and the reproductive success of a tropical shrub. Biotropica30, 416—24.
50.
Piou, C., Feller, I.C., Berger, U. and Chi, F.2006: Zonation patterns of Belizean offshore mangrove forests 41 years after a catastrophic hurricane. Biotropica38, 365—74.
51.
Sauer, P.E., Miller, G.H. and Overpeck, J.T.2001: Oxygen isotope ratios of organic matter in arctic lakes as a paleoclimate proxy: field and laboratory investigations. Journal of Paleolimnology25, 43—64.
52.
Sobrado, M. and Ewe, S.2006: Ecophysiological characteristics of Avicennia germinans and Laguncularia racemosa coexisting in a scrub mangrove forest at the Indian River Lagoon, Florida. Trees-Structure and Function 20, 679—87.
53.
Sternberg, L.D.L. and Swart, P.K.1987: Utilization of fresh-water and ocean water by coastal plants of southern Florida. Ecology 68, 1898—905. Stuiver, M., Reimer, P.J., Bard, E., Beck, J.W., Burr, G.S., Hughen, K.A., Kromer, B., McCormac, G., Van der Plicht, J. and Spurk, M. 1998: INTCAL98 radiocarbon age calibration, 24,000—0 cal BP. Radiocarbon40, 1041—83.
54.
Swarzbach, A.1999: Bibliography of sea-level change and mangroves. http://wwwscieng.murdoch.edu.au/centres/others/mangrove/ sea_level.html
55.
Torrescano, N. and Islebe, G.A.2006: Tropical forest and mangrove history from southeastern Mexico: a 5000 yr pollen record and implications for sea level rise. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 15, 191—95.
56.
Toscano, M.A. and Macintyre, I.G.2003: Corrected western Atlantic sea-level curve for the last 11,000 years based on calibrated C-14 dates from Acropora palmata framework and intertidal mangrove peat. Coral Reefs 22, 257—70.
57.
Verheyden, A., Helle, G., Schleser, G.H., Dehairs, F., Beeckman, H. and Koedam, N.2004: Annual cyclicity in high-resolution stable carbon and oxygen isotope ratios in the wood of the mangrove tree Rhizophora mucronata. PlantCell and Environment27, 1525—36.
58.
Wahl, D., Byrne, R., Schreiner, T. and Hansen, R.2006: Holocene vegetation change in the northern Peten and its implications for Maya prehistory. Quaternary Research65, 380—89.
59.
Whitmore, T.J., Brenner, M., Curtis, J.H., Dahlin, B.H. and Leyden, B.W.1996: Holocene climatic and human influences on lakes of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico: an interdisciplinary, palaeolimnological approach . The Holocene6, 273—87.
60.
Woodroffe, C.D.1995a: Mangrove vegetation of Tobacco Range and nearby Mangrove Ranges, central Belize Barrier Reef. National Museum of Natural HistorySmithsonian Institution, 1—35.
61.
——— 1995b: Response of tide-dominated mangrove shorelines in northern Australia to anticipated sea-level rise. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms20, 65—85.
62.
Woodroffe, S.A., Horton, B.P., Larcombe, P. and Whittaker, J.E.2005: Intertidal mangrove foraminifera from the central Great Barrier Reef shelf, Australia: implications for sea-level reconstruction. Journal of Foraminiferal Research 35, 259—70.
63.
Wooller, M.J., Smallwood, B., Jacobson, M. and Fogel, M.2003a: Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopic variation in Laguncularia racemosa (L.) (white mangrove) from Florida and Belize: implications for trophic level studies. Hydrobiologia499, 13—23.
64.
Wooller, M.J., Smallwood, B., Scharler, U., Jacobson, M. and Fogel, M.2003b: A taphonomic study of delta C-13 and delta N-15 values in Rhizophora mangle leaves for a multi-proxy approach to mangrove palaeoecology . Organic Geochemistry34, 1259—75.
65.
Wooller, M.J., Behling, H., Smallwood, B.J. and Fogel, M.2004a: Mangrove ecosystem dynamics and elemental cycling at Twin Cays, Belize, during the Holocene. Journal ofQuaternary Science19, 703—11.
66.
Wooller, M.J., Francis, D., Fogel, M.L., Miller, G.H., Walker, I.R. and Wolfe, A.P.2004b: Quantitative paleotemperature estimates from delta O-18 of chironomid head capsules preserved in arctic lake sediments. Journal of Paleolimnology 31, 267—74.
