This article draws on empirical data from the EPOC survey of employee participation in Europe and other data sources to examine cross-nationally the extent of four main forms of participation: collective bargaining, direct participation, indirect (or representative) participation and financial participation. It has been argued that these, taken together, constitute the four `pillars' of a European model. The article concludes by considering whether such a European model of participation already exists in practice in the European Union; or if not, whether there is a trend towards such a model.
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