This paper continues the exposition begun in the previous paper (Fisher, 2003b) concerning philosophy’s metaphysical insistence on rigorous figure–meaning independence, and its own distrust of that insistence, turning now to the potential for a new metrological culture that values both the full integration of mathematics and measurement, and frequent, vigorous challenges to that integration. Recent criticisms of psychological measurement as subject to a quantitative or methodological imperative are evaluated in terms of the history of academic metaphysics developed in the previous paper. The thesis is proposed and defended that quantitative instruments effectively embody hermeneutic-mathematical metaphysics’ coordination of signifier and signified only when both within-and between-laboratory metrology studies are completed. Experimental tests of instrument functioning and social networks of laboratories collaborating in the creation and maintenance of metric standards are seen as vital to the emergence of a new metrological culture in the human sciences.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Ackermann, J.R. (1985). Data, instruments, and theory: A dialectical approach to understanding science. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
2.
Adams, R.J., & Wright, B.D. (1994). When does misfit make a difference? In M. Wilson (Ed.), Objective measurement: Theory into practice (Vol. 2, pp. 244–270). Norwood, NJ: Ablex .
3.
Allerup, P., & Sorber, G. (1977). The Rasch model for questionnaires. Report no. 16. Copenhagen, Denmark: Danish Institute for Educational Research .
4.
Andersen, E.B. (1973). A goodness of fit test for the Rasch model . Psychometrika, 38, 123–140 .
Andersen, E.B. (1980). Discrete statistical models with social science applications. Amsterdam: North-Holland .
7.
Andrich, D.A. (1978). Relationships between the Thurstone and Rasch approaches to item scaling . Applied Psychological Measurement, 2, 449–460 .
8.
Andrich, D.A. (1988). Rasch models for measurement. Sage University Paper series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, series no. 07–068. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage .
9.
Andrich, D.A. (1989a). Constructing fundamental measurements in social psychology. In J.A. Keats, R. Taft, R.A. Heath, & S.H. Lovibond (Eds.), Mathematical and theoretical systems: Proceedings of the 24th International Congress of Psychology of the International Union of Psychological Science (Vol. 4, pp. 17–26). Amsterdam: North-Holland .
10.
Andrich, D.A. (1989b). Distinctions between assumptions and requirements in measurement in the social sciences. In J.A. Keats, R. Taft, R.A. Heath, & S.H. Lovibond (Eds.), Mathematical and theoretical systems: Proceedings of the 24th International Congress of Psychology of the International Union of Psychological Science (Vol. 4, pp. 7–16). Amsterdam: North-Holland .
11.
Andrich, D.A. (2002). Understanding resistance to the data–model relationship in Rasch’s paradigm: A reflection for the next generation . Journal of Applied Measurement, 3(3), 325–359 .
12.
Andrich, D.A., Lyne, A., Sheridan, B., & Luo, G. (2000). RUMM: Rasch unidimensional models for measurement. Perth: RUMM Laboratory Pty Ltd [http//www.rummlab.com.au].
13.
ASC (1996). RASCAL: Rasch analysis program. St Paul, MN: Assessment Systems Corp .
14.
Bayley, S. (2000). Measuring customer satisfaction: Comparing traditional and latent trait approaches using the Auditor General’s survey . Evaluation Journal of Australasia, 1(1), 8–17 .
15.
Bazerman, C. (1994). Shaping written knowledge: The genre and activity of the experimental article in science. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press .
16.
Bergstrom, B.A., & Lunz, M.E. (1999). CAT for certification and licensure. In F. Drasgow & J.B. Olson-Buchanan (Eds.), Innovations in computerized assessment (pp. 67–91). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum .
17.
Bond, T., & Fox, C. (2001). Fundamental measurement in the human sciences: Applying the Rasch model. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum .
18.
Bourbaki, N. (1971). The architecture of mathematics. In F. Le Lionnais (Ed.), Great currents in mathematical thought (pp. 23–36). New York: Dover .
19.
Brogden, H.E. (1977). The Rasch model, the law of comparative judgment and additive conjoint measurement . Psychometrika, 42, 631–634 .
20.
Callon, M. (1995). Four models for the dynamics of science. In S. Jasanoff, G.E. Markle, J.C. Petersen, & T. Pinch (Eds.), Handbook of science and technology studies (pp. 29–63). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
21.
Campbell, N.R. (1920). Physics, the elements. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
22.
Campbell, S.K., Wright, B.D., & Linacre, J.M. (2002, Summer). Development of a functional movement scale for infants . Journal of Applied Measurement, 3(2), 190–204 .
23.
Carlson, S., Andrews, M., & Bickel, G. (1999, Feb). Measuring food insecurity and hunger in the United States: Development of a national benchmark measure and prevalence estimates . Journal of Nutrition, 129(2S Suppl), 510s–516s .
24.
Carnap, R. (1959). The elimination of metaphysics through logical analysis of language. In A.J. Ayer (Ed.), Logical positivism (pp. 60–81). New York: Free Press . [Reprinted in Murray, M. (1978), Heidegger and modern philosophy (pp. 23–34). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.]
Choppin, B. (1968). An item bank using sample-free calibration . Nature, 219, 870–872 .
27.
Choppin, B. (1976). Recent developments in item banking. In D.N.M. DeGruitjer & L.J. van der Kamp (Eds.), Advances in psychological and educational measurement (pp. 233–245). New York: Wiley .
28.
Cliff, N. (1992). Abstract measurement theory and the revolution that never happened . Psychological Science, 3, 186–190 .
29.
Cliff, N. (1993). What is and isn’t measurement. In G. Keren & C. Lewis (Eds.), A handbook for data analysis in the behavioral sciences: Methodological issues (pp. 53–90). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum .
30.
Cochrane, R.E. (1966). Measures for progress: A history of the National Bureau of Standards. Washington, DC: US Dept. of Commerce .
31.
Connolly, A.J., Nachtman, W., & Pritchett, E.M. (1971). Keymath: Diagnostic Arithmetic Test. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service .
32.
Coye, M.J. (2001, November/December). No Toyotas in health care: Why medical care has not evolved to meet patients’ needs . Health Affairs, 20(6), 44–56 .
33.
Crease, R. (1993). The play of nature. Bloomington: Indiana University Press .
34.
Crosby, A.W. (1997). The measure of reality: Quantification and Western society, 1250–1600. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
35.
Danziger, K. (1985). The methodological imperative in psychology . Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 15(1), 1–13 .
36.
Dawson, T.L. (2002, Summer). A comparison of three developmental stage scoring systems . Journal of Applied Measurement, 3(2), 146–189 .
37.
Derrida, J. (1978). Structure, sign and play in the discourse of the human sciences. In Writing and difference (A. Bass, Trans.; pp. 278–293). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press .
38.
De Soto, H. (2000). The mystery of capital: Why capitalism triumphs in the West and fails everywhere else. New York: Basic Books .
39.
Engelhard, G., Jr. (1984). Thorndike, Thurstone, and Rasch: A comparison of their methods of scaling psychological and educational tests . Applied Psychological Measurement, 8(1), 21–38 .
40.
Engelhard, G., Jr. (1994). Historical views of the concept of invariance in measurement theory. In M. Wilson (Ed.), Objective measurement: Theory into practice (Vol. 2, pp. 73–99). Norwood, NJ: Ablex .
41.
Engelhard, G., Jr. (2001). Historical view of the influences of measurement and reading theories on the assessment of reading . Journal of Applied Measurement, 2(1), 1–26 .
42.
Falmagne, J.-C., & Narens, L. (1983). Scales and meaningfulness of quantitative laws . Synthese, 55, 287–325 .
43.
Fischer, G.H. (1974). Einführung in die theorie psychologischer tests [Introduction to mental test theory]. Berne: Huber .
44.
Fischer, G.H. (1995). Derivations of the Rasch model. In G. Fischer & I. Molenaar (Eds.), Rasch models: Foundations, recent developments, and applications (pp. 15–38). New York: Springer-Verlag .
45.
Fischer, G.H. (1997). Structural Rasch models: Some theory, applications, and software. In M. Wilson, G. Engelhard, Jr., & K. Draney (Eds.), Objective measurement: Theory into practice (Vol. 4, pp. 185–208). Norwood, NJ: Ablex .
46.
Fischer, G.H., & Molenaar, I. (Eds.). (1995). Rasch models: Foundations, recent developments, and applications. New York: Springer-Verlag .
47.
Fisher, A.G. (1993, April). The assessment of IADL motor skills: An application of many-faceted Rasch analysis . American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 47(4), 319–329 .
48.
Fisher, R.A. (1922). On the mathematical foundations of theoretical statistics . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, A, 222, 309–368 .
49.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (1988). Truth, method, and measurement: The hermeneutic of instrumentation and the Rasch model (Doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago). Dissertation Abstracts International, 49, 0778A.
50.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (1992). Objectivity in measurement: A philosophical history of Rasch’s separability theorem. In M. Wilson (Ed.), Objective measurement: Theory into practice (Vol. 1, pp. 29–58). Norwood, NJ: Ablex .
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (1994, August 20–4). The Rasch debate: Validity and revolution in educational measurement. In M. Wilson (Ed.), Objective measurement: Theory into practice (Vol. 2, pp. 36–72). Norwood, NJ: Ablex .
53.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (1995). Opportunism, a first step to inevitability? Rasch Measurement Transactions, 9(2), 426-426 [http://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt92.htm].
54.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (1996a, October). Measurement standards relevant to ASTM 1384 on the content and structure of the electronic health record. Unpublished paper presented at the ASTM E31 Committee on the Electronic Health Record, Washington, DC.
55.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (1996b, Winter). The Rasch alternative . Rasch Measurement Transactions, 9(4), 466–467 [http://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt94.htm].
56.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (1997a). Physical disability construct convergence across instruments: Towards a universal metric . Journal of Outcome Measurement, 1(2), 87–113 .
57.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (1997b). What scale-free measurement means to health outcomes research . Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation State of the Art Reviews, 11(2), 357–373 .
58.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (1999a). Foundations for health status metrology: The stability of MOS SF-36 PF-10 calibrations across samples . Journal of the Louisiana State Medical Society, 151(11), 566–578 .
59.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (1999b). Reducible or irreducible? Sufficiency and invariance in psychological measurement . Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Boston.
60.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (2000a). Objectivity in psychosocial measurement: What, why, how . Journal of Outcome Measurement, 4(2), 527–563 .
61.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (2000b). Survey design recommendations . Popular Measurement, 3(1), 58–59 .
62.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (2001). Review of John Roche’s The mathematics of measurement: A critical history . Journal of Applied Measurement, 2(4), 426–440 .
63.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (2002a, Winter). Growth of Rasch publications in the medical literature . Rasch Measurement Transactions, 16(3), 884-884 [http://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt163.zip].
64.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (2002b, Spring). ‘The mystery of capital’ and the human sciences . Rasch Measurement Transactions, 15(4), 854-854 [http://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt154j.htm].
65.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (2003a). Consequences of mathematical metaphysics for metrology in the human sciences. In A. Morales (Ed.), Renascent pragmatism: Studies in law and social science (pp. 118–153). Brookfield, VT: Ashgate .
66.
Fisher, W.P., Jr. (2003b). Mathematics, measurement, metaphor and metaphysics I. Implications for method in postmodern science . Theory & Psychology, 13, 753–790 .
67.
Fisher, W.P., Jr., Eubanks, R.L., & Marier, R.L. (1997). Equating the MOS SF36 and the LSU HSI physical functioning scales . Journal of Outcome Measurement, 1(4), 329–362 .
68.
Fisher, W.P., Jr., Harvey, R.F., Taylor, P., Kilgore, K.M., & Kelly, C.K. (1995). Rehabits: A common language of functional assessment . Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 76, 113–122 .
69.
Fisher, W.P., Jr., & Markward, N. (2000). Applying fundamental measurement to problems in cancer genetics: Mutations as signature violations of sufficiency and model fit [abstract] . Annals of the Academy of Studenica, 3, 23-23 .
70.
Fisher, W.P., Jr., & Wright, B.D. (Eds.). (1994). Applications of probabilistic conjoint measurement [Special Issue] . International Journal of Educational Research, 21(6), 557–664 .
71.
Gadamer, H.-G. (1989). Truth and method (2nd rev. ed.; G. Barden & J. Cumming, Eds.; J. Weinsheimer & D. Marshall, rev. Trans.). New York: Crossroad .
72.
Galison, P. (1999). Trading zone: Coordinating action and belief. In M. Biagioli (Ed.), The science studies reader (pp. 137–160). New York: Routledge .
73.
Gehlert, S., & Chang, C. (1998). Factor structure and dimensionality of the multidimensional health locus of control scales in measuring adults with epilepsy . Journal of Outcome Measurement, 2(3), 173–190 .
Glas, C.A.W., & Verhelst, N.D. (1995). Tests of fit for polytomous Rasch models. In G. Fischer & I. Molenaar (Eds.), Rasch models: Foundations, recent developments, and applications (pp. 325–352). New York: Springer-Verlag .
76.
Glazebrook, T. (2000). Heidegger’s philosophy of science. New York: Fordham University Press .
77.
Granger, C.V., & Gresham, G.E. (Eds). (1993, August). New developments in functional assessment [Special Issue]. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America, 4(3), 417–611 .
78.
Gustafsson, J.-E. (1979). PML: A computer program for conditional estimation and testing in the Rasch model for dichotomous items. Report no. 85. Gothenburg: Institute of Education, University of Gothenburg .
79.
Guttman, L. (1985). The illogic of statistical inference for cumulative science . Applied Stochastic Models and Data Analysis, 1, 3–10 .
80.
Haladyna, T.M. (1994, June). A research agenda for licensing and certification testing validation studies . Evaluation & the Health Professions, 17(2), 242–256 .
81.
Heelan, P. (1983a, June). Natural science as a hermeneutic of instrumentation . Philosophy of Science, 50, 181–204 .
82.
Heelan, P. (1983b, September). Perception as a hermeneutical act . Review of Metaphysics, 37, 61–75 .
83.
Heelan, P. (1983c). Space-perception and the philosophy of science. Berkeley: University of California Press .
84.
Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and time (J. Macquarrie & E. Robinson, Trans.). New York: Harper & Row .
85.
Heidegger, M. (1967). What is a thing? (W.B. Barton, Jr. & V. Deutsch, Trans.; analytic afterword by E. Gendlin). South Bend, IN: Regnery .
86.
Heidegger, M. (1982). The basic problems of phenomenology (A. Hofstadter, Trans.). Bloomington: Indiana University Press .
87.
Heilbron, J.L. (1993). Weighing imponderables and other quantitative science around 1800. Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences, Vol. 24 (Supplement), Part I (pp. 1–337). Berkeley: University of California Press .
88.
Husserl, E. (1970). The crisis of European sciences and transcendental phenomenology (D. Carr, Trans.). Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press .
89.
Hutchins, E. (1995). Cognition in the wild. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press .
90.
Ihde, D. (1990). Technology and the lifeworld: From garden to earth. Bloomington: Indiana University Press .
91.
Ihde, D. (1991). Instrumental realism: The interface between philosophy of science and philosophy of technology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press .
92.
Ihde, D. (1998). Expanding hermeneutics: Visualism in science. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press .
93.
Jacobs, E. (2001, July 31). Point-of-care testing connectivity update—Connectivity Industry Consortium . In E. Jacobs (Chair), Session 3301: Outcomes & utility of point-of-care testing. Annual Meeting of the American Association of Clinical Chemists, Chicago, IL.
94.
Jaeger, R.M. (1973). The national test equating study in reading (The Anchor Test Study) . Measurement in Education, 4, 1–8 .
95.
Kalinowski, A. (1985). Measuring clinical pain . Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 7, 329–349 .
96.
Karabatsos, G. (1998). Analyzing nonadditive conjoint structures: Compounding events by Rasch model probabilities . Journal of Outcome Measurement, 2(3), 191–221 .
97.
Karabatsos, G. (2001). The Rasch model, additive conjoint measurement, and new models of probabilistic measurement theory . Journal of Applied Measurement, 2(4), 389–423 .
98.
Keats, J.A. (1967). Test theory . Annual Review of Psychology, 18, 217–238 .
99.
Kelderman, H., & Steen, R. (1988). LOGIMO computer program for log-linear item response theory modelling. Twente: Department of Education, University of Twente .
100.
Kelley, P.R., & Schumacher, C.F. (1984, December). The Rasch model: Its use by the National Board of Medical Examiners . Evaluation & the Health Professions, 7(4), 443–454 .
101.
Kindig, D.A. (1997). Purchasing population health. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press .
102.
Kisiel, T. (1973). The mathematical and the hermeneutical: On Heidegger’s notion of the apriori. In E.G. Ballard & C.E. Scott (Eds.), Martin Heidegger: In Europe and America (pp. 109–120). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff .
103.
Klauer, K.C. (1995). The assessment of person fit. In G.H. Fischer & I.W. Molenaar (Eds.), Rasch models: Foundations, recent developments, and applications (pp. 97–110). New York: Springer-Verlag .
104.
Klein, H.A. (1974). The world of measurements: Masterpieces, mysteries and muddles of metrology. New York: Simon & Schuster .
105.
Kline, P., Laming, D., Lovie, A.D., Luce, R.D., & Morgan, M. (1997). Commentary on Michell, quantitative science and the definition of measurement in psychology . British Journal of Psychology, 88, 385–400 .
106.
Knorr Cetina, K. (1995). Laboratory studies: The cultural approach to the study of science. In S. Jasanoff, G.E. Markle, J.C. Petersen & T. Pinch (Eds.), Handbook of science and technology studies (pp. 140–166). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
107.
Kohn, L., Corrigan, J., & Donaldson, M. (Eds.). (2000). To err is human: Building a safer health system. Washington, DC: National Academy Press .
108.
Krantz, D.H., Luce, R.D., Suppes, P., & Tversky, A. (1971). Foundations of measurement: Vol. 1. Additive and polynomial representations. New York: Academic Press .
109.
Kuhn, T.S. (1977). The function of measurement in modern physical science. In The essential tension: Selected studies in scientific tradition and change (pp. 178–224). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press . [Reprinted from Isis, 52(168), 1961, 161–193.]
110.
Latour, B. (1987). Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. New York: Cambridge University Press .
111.
Latour, B. (1993). We have never been modern. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press .
112.
Latour, B. (1994, May). Pragmatogonies: A mythical account of how humans and nonhumans swap properties . American Behavioral Scientist, 37(6), 791–808 .
113.
Latour, B. (1995). Cogito ergo sumus! Or psychology swept inside out by the fresh air of the upper deck [Review of Hutchins’ Cognition in the Wild, MIT Press, 1995] . Mind, Culture, and Activity: An International Journal, 3(1), 54–63 .
114.
Latour, B. (1999). Pandora’s hope: Essays on the reality of science studies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press .
Linacre, J.M. (1996). Generalizability theory and many-facet Rasch measurement. In G. Engelhard, Jr. & M. Wilson (Eds.), Objective measurement: Theory into practice (Vol. 3, pp. 85–98). Norwood, NJ: Ablex .
119.
Linacre, J.M. (1997). Instantaneous measurement and diagnosis . Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation State of the Art Reviews, 11(2), 315–324 .
120.
Linacre, J.M. (1998). Detecting multidimensionality: Which residual data-type works best? Journal of Outcome Measurement, 2(3), 266–283 .
121.
Linacre, J.M., Engelhard, G., Tatum, D. S., & Myford, C.M. (1994). Measurement with judges: Many-faceted conjoint measurement . International Journal of Educational Research, 21(6), 569–577 .
122.
Lobato, J. (2003, January/February). How design experiments can inform a rethinking of transfer and vice versa . Educational Researcher, 32(1), 17–20 .
123.
Lobato, J., & Siebert, D. (2002). Quantitative reasoning in a reconceived view of transfer . Journal of Mathematical Thinking, 21(1), 87–116 .
124.
Luce, R.D., Krantz, D.H., Suppes, P., & Tversky, A. (1990). Foundations of measurement: Vol. III. Representation, axiomatization, and invariance. San Diego, CA: Academic Press .
125.
Luce, R.D. & Tukey, J.W. (1964). Simultaneous conjoint measurement: A new kind of fundamental measurement . Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 1(1), 1–27 .
126.
Ludlow, L.H. (1992). SCALE: A Rasch program for rating scale data. Chestnut Hill, MA: Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation Program, Boston College .
127.
Luke, A. (2003, January–March). Literacy and the Other: A sociological approach to literacy research and policy in multilingual societies . Reading Research Quarterly, 38(1), 132–141 .
128.
Lunz, M.E., Bergstrom, B.A., & Gershon, R.C. (1994). Computer adaptive testing . International Journal of Educational Research, 21(6), 623–634 .
129.
Lunz, M.E., & Linacre, J.M. (1998). Measurement designs using multifacet Rasch modeling. In G.A. Marcoulides (Ed.), Modern methods for business research: Methodology for business and management (pp. 47–77). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum .
130.
Lunz, M.E., Wright, B.D., & Linacre, J.M. (1990). Measuring the impact of judge severity on examination scores . Applied Measurement in Education, 3/4, 331–345 .
131.
Maasen, S., & Weingart, P. (2001). Metaphors and the dynamics of knowledge. London: Routledge .
132.
Mandel, J. (1977, March). The analysis of interlaboratory test data . ASTM Standardization News, 5, 17–20, 56-56 .
Maor, E. (1994). e: The story of a number. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
135.
Markward, N. (2001). A framework for the objective measurement of genomic information. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University School of Medicine, Department of Genetics.
136.
Markward, N., Fisher, W.P., Jr., & Keats, B. (2002). ’Family-free’ genetic linkage and linkage disequilibrium analyses: A new perspective of the evolutionary dynamics of Friedreich ataxia. Unpublished ms. New Orleans, LA: LSU Health Sciences Center, Department of Genetics.
137.
Masters, G.N. (1984). Constructing an item bank using partial credit scoring . Journal of Educational Measurement, 21(1), 19–32 .
138.
Masters, G.N. (1985, March). Common-person equating with the Rasch model. Applied Psychological Measurement, pp. 73–82.
139.
Masters, G.N., & Wright, B.D. (1984, December). The essential process in a family of measurement models . Psychometrika, 49(4), 529–544 .
140.
Mathieu, W.A. (1997). Harmonic experience: Tonal harmony from its natural origins to it modern expression. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions International .
141.
McNamara, T. (1996). Measuring second language performance. White Plains, NY: Addison Wesley Longman .
142.
Mendelsohn, E. (1992). The social locus of scientific instruments. In R. Bud & S.E. Cozzens (Eds.), Invisible connections: Instruments, institutions, and science (pp. 5–22). Bellingham, WA: SPIE Optical Engineering Press .
143.
Michell, J. (1990). An introduction to the logic of psychological measurement. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum .
144.
Michell, J. (1994). Numbers as quantitative relations and the traditional theory of measurement . British Journal of the Philosophy of Science, 45, 389–406 .
145.
Michell, J. (1997a). Quantitative science and the definition of measurement in psychology . British Journal of Psychology, 88, 355–383 .
146.
Michell, J. (1997b). Reply to Kline, Laming, Lovie, Luce, and Morgan . British Journal of Psychology, 88, 401–406 .
147.
Michell, J. (1999). Measurement in psychology: A critical history of a methodological concept. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
148.
Michell, J. (2000). Normal science, pathological science and psychometrics . Theory & Psychology, 10, 639–667 .
National Institute for Standards and Technology. (1996). Economic impacts of research in metrology. In Subcommittee on Research (Ed.), Assessing fundamental science: A report from the Subcommittee on Research, Committee on Fundamental Science. Washington, DC: National Standards and Technology Council [http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/ostp/assess/nstcafsk.htm].
151.
O’Connell, J. (1993). Metrology: The creation of universality by the circulation of particulars . Social Studies of Science, 23, 129–173 .
152.
Perline, R., Wright, B.D., & Wainer H. (1979). The Rasch model as additive conjoint measurement . Applied Psychological Measurement, 3(2), 237–255 .
153.
Petersen, A. (1968). Quantum physics and the philosophical tradition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press .
154.
Platt, J. (1964, October 16). Strong inference . Science, 146(3642), 347–353 .
155.
Putnam, H. (1979). Philosophy of mathematics: A report. In P.D. Asquith & H. Kyburg (Eds.), Current research in philosophy of science. Proceedings of the PSA critical research problems conference (pp. 386–398). East Lansing, MI: Philosophy of Science Association .
156.
Rasch, G. (1960). Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests. Copenhagen: Danmarks Paedogogiske Institut . [Reprinted, 1980, with Foreword and Afterword by B.D. Wright, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.]
157.
Rasch, G. (1961). On general laws and the meaning of measurement in psychology. In J. Neyman, (Ed.), Proceedings of the Fourth Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability (pp. 321–333). Berkeley: University of California Press .
158.
Rasch, G. (1966). An item analysis which takes individual differences into account . British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 19, 49–57 .
159.
Rasch, G. (1977). On specific objectivity: An attempt at formalizing the request for generality and validity of scientific statements . Danish Yearbook of Philosophy, 14, 58–94 .
160.
Reckase, M.D. (1989). Adaptive testing: The evolution of a good idea . Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 8, 3-3 .
161.
Rentz, R.R., & Bashaw, W.L. (1977, Summer). The National Reference Scale for Reading: An application of the Rasch model . Journal of Educational Measurement, 14(2), 161–179 .
162.
Ricoeur, P. (1974). Political and social essays (D. Stewart & J. Bien, Eds.). Athens: Ohio University Press .
163.
Ricoeur, P. (1978). The task of hermeneutics (D. Pellauer, Trans.). In M. Murray (Ed.), Heidegger and modern philosophy (pp. 141–160). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press . [Reprinted from Ricoeur, P. (1973). The task of hermeneutics. Philosophy Today, 17, 112–28; also in Ricoeur, P. (1981), Hermeneutics and the human sciences: Essays on language, action and interpretation (J. B. Thompson, Ed. & Trans.; pp. 43–62). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.]
164.
Ricoeur, P. (1979). Main trends in philosophy. New York: Holmes & Meier . [Reprinted from Main trends of research in the social and human sciences–Part II. UNESCO, 1978.]
165.
Ricoeur, P. (1981). Hermeneutics and the human sciences: Essays on language, action and interpretation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
166.
Roche, J. (1998). The mathematics of measurement: A critical history. London: Athlone .
167.
Roskam, E.E., & Jansen, P.G.W. (1984). A new derivation of the Rasch model. In E. DeGreef & J. van Buggenhaut (Eds.), Trends in mathematical psychology (pp. 293–307). Amsterdam: Elsevier .
168.
Rost, J., & von Davier, M. (1994, June). A conditional item-fit index for Rasch models . Applied Psychological Measurement, 18(2), 171–182 .
Seccombe, D.W. (2001, July 31). Standardization of laboratory testing: A model for the future? In G. Cembrowski (Chair), Session 3304: Reshaping proficiency testing: Lessons for laboratorians, providers & regulators. Annual Meeting of the American Association of Clinical Chemists, Chicago, IL.
171.
Shapin, S. (1994). A social history of truth: Civility and science in seventeenth-century England. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press .
172.
Smith, E.V., Jr. (2002). Detecting and evaluating the impact of multidimensionality using item fit statistics and principal component analysis of residuals . Journal of Applied Measurement, 3(2), 205–231 .
173.
Smith, R.M. (1985). A comparison of Rasch person analysis and robust estimators . Educational & Psychological Measurement, 45(3), 433–444 .
174.
Smith, R.M. (1991). IPARM: Item and person analysis with the Rasch model. Chicago, IL: MESA Press .
175.
Smith, R.M. (1996). A comparison of methods for determining dimensionality in Rasch measurement . Structural Equation Modeling, 3(1), 25–40 .
176.
Smith, R.M. (Ed.). (1997, June). Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation: State of the Art Reviews: Outcome Measurement, 11(2), 261–428 .
177.
Smith, R.M. (2000). Fit analysis in latent trait measurement models . Journal of Applied Measurement, 1(2), 199–218 .
178.
Subcommittee on Research. (Ed.). (1996, July 9). Assessing fundamental science: A report from the Subcommittee on Research, Committee on Fundamental Science. Washington, DC: National Science and Technology Council [http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/ostp/assess/].
179.
Sullivan, A.T. (1985). The seventh dragon: The riddle of equal temperament. Lake Oswego, OR: Metamorphous .
180.
Suppes, P., Krantz, D., Luce, R.D., & Tversky, A. (1989). Foundations of measurement: Vol. II. Geometric and probabilistic representations. New York: Academic Press .
181.
Suppes, P., & Zinnes, J.L. (1963). Basic measurement theory. In R.D. Luce, R.R. Bush, & E. Galanter (Eds.), Handbook of mathematical psychology (pp. 1–76). New York: Wiley .
182.
Tenenbaum, G. (1999, January–March). The implementation of Thurstone’s and Guttman’s measurement ideas in Rasch analysis . International Journal of Sport Psychology, 30(1), 3–16 .
183.
Thorndike, E.L. (1904). An introduction to the theory of mental and social measurements. New York: Teacher’s College Press .
184.
Thurstone, L.L. (1926). The scoring of individual performance . Journal of Educational Psychology, 17, 446–457 .
185.
Thurstone, L.L. (1959a). Attitudes can be measured. In The Measurement of Values (pp. 215–233). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press . [Reprinted from American Journal of Sociology, XXXIII, 1928, 529–544.]
186.
Thurstone, L.L. (1959b). Psychology as a quantitative rational science. In The measurement of values (pp. 3–11 Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press . [Reprinted from Science, LXXXV, March 5, 1937, 228–232.]
187.
Verhelst, N. D. (1993). One Parameter Logistic Model computer program. Arnhem: Cito .
188.
Wegner, D. (1991). Transactive memory in close relationships . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(6), 923–929 .
189.
Weiss, D.J. (1983). New horizons in testing: Latent trait test theory and computerized adaptive testing. New York: Academic Press .
190.
Wernimont, G. (1977, March). Ruggedness evaluation of test procedures . ASTM Standardization News, 5, 13–16 .
191.
Wernimont, G. (1978, December). Careful intralaboratory study must come first . ASTM Standardization News, 6, 11–12 .
192.
Wheeler, J.A., & Zurek, W.H. (Eds.). (1983). Quantum theory and measurement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
193.
Widmalm, S. (1995, May 12). On exactitude, a review of The Values of Precision, by M. Norton Wise . Science, 268, 905–906 .
194.
Wilson, T.P. (1971). Critique of ordinal variables . Social Forces, 49, 432–444 .
195.
Wimsatt, W.C. (1981). Robustness, reliability and overdetermination. In M.B. Brewer & B.E. Collins (Eds.), Scientific inquiry and the social sciences (pp. 124–163). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass .
196.
Wise, M.N. (Ed.). (1995). The values of precision. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
197.
Wolfe, E.W. (2000). Equating and item banking with the Rasch model . Journal of Applied Measurement, 1(4), 409–434 .
198.
Wood, D., & Bernasconi, R. (Eds.). (1988). Derrida and différance. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press .
199.
Woodcock, R.W. (1973). Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service .
200.
Woodcock, R.W. (1999). What can Rasch-based scores convey about a person’s test performance? In S.E. Embretson & S.L. Hershberger (Eds.), The new rules of measurement: What every psychologist and educator should know (pp. 105–127). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum .
201.
Wright, B.D. (1968). Sample-free test calibration and person measurement. In Proceedings of the 1967 Invitational Conference on Testing Problems (pp. 85–101). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service .
202.
Wright, B.D. (1977). Solving measurement problems with the Rasch model . Journal of Educational Measurement, 14(2), 97–116 .
203.
Wright, B.D. (1984). Despair and hope for educational measurement . Contemporary Education Review, 3(1), 281–288 .
204.
Wright, B.D. (1985). Additivity in psychological measurement. In E. Roskam (Ed.), Measurement and personality assessment (pp. 101–111). Amsterdam: North-Holland .
205.
Wright, B.D. (1999). Fundamental measurement for psychology. In S.E. Embretson & S.L. Hershberger (Eds.), The new rules of measurement: What every educator and psychologist should know (pp. 65–104). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum .
206.
Wright, B.D., & Bell, S.R. (1984). Item banks: What, why, how . Journal of Educational Measurement, 21(4), 331–345 .
207.
Wright, B.D., & Douglas, G.A. (1975). Best test design and self-tailored testing. (Research Memorandum No. 19). MESA Laboratory, Department of Education, University of Chicago .
208.
Wright, B.D., & Linacre, J.M. (2003). A user’s guide to WINSTEPS Rasch-Model computer program, v. 3.38. Chicago, IL: MESA Press [http://www.rasch.org].
