Hidden agendas impacting women's health care are explored in the context of the intersecting effects of capitalism as the ideology of medical politics, and patriarchy as the ideology of sexual politics. The mutually enhancing forces of medical and sexual politics collide in scientific reductionism - biological determinism for her'. Women are valued according to their ability and willingness to bear and raise children; illnesses and remedies for those women who are unwilling or unable to conform are invented. Thus, the `raging hormones' of puberty and pregnancy tend to be viewed as good and healthy while those associated with the menstrual cycle and menopause are portrayed as unhealthy and in need of alteration. The medical and psychological professions maintain and enhance their power, prestige and profits and serve the patriarchy by labeling events in the normal life course of women as illnesses, reinforcing social misogyny with medical misogyny, emphasizing reproduction rather than health in prioritizing empirical and clinical research, and attributing women's emotions and behaviors to hormonal fluctuations rather than economic, political and social causes.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abe, T.
, Furuhashi, N., Yamaya, Y., Wada, Y., Hoshiai, A. and Suzuki, M. (1977) `Correlation between Climacteric Symptoms and Serum Levels of Estradiol, Pro-gesterone, Follicle-Stimulating Hormone, and Lutenizing Hormone', American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology129: 65-67.
2.
American Psychiatric Association
(1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edn), Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
3.
Andrews, W.C.
(1995) `The Transitional Years and Beyond', Obstetrics and Gynecology85: 1-5.
4.
Archer, J.
(1991) `The Influence of Testosterone on Human Aggression', British Journal of Psychology82: 1-28.
5.
Armstrong, L.
(1994) `Who Stole Incest?', On the IssuesFall: 30-32.
6.
Ballinger, C.B.
(1975) `Psychiatric Morbidity and the Menopause: Screening of General Population Sample', British Medical Journal3: 344-346.
7.
Ballinger, C.B.
(1976) `Subjective Sleep Distrubance at Menopause', Journal of Psychosomatic Research20: 509-513.
8.
Bancroft, J.
, Sanders, D., Davidson, D. and Warner, P. (1983) `Mood, Sexuality, Hormones, and the Menstrual Cycle, III: Sexuality and the Role of Androgens', Psychosomatic Medicine45: 509-516.
9.
Belchetz, P.E.
(1994) `Hormonal Treatment of Postmenopausal Women', New England Journal of Medicine330: 1062-71.
10.
Berman, R.S.
, Epstein, R.S. and Lydick, E.G. (1996) `Compliance of Women in Taking Estrogen Replacement Therapy', Journal of Women's Health5: 213-220.
11.
Box, S.
(1978) `Hyperactivity: The Scandalous Silence', American EducationSummer: 22-24.
12.
Brenner, P.F.
(1988) `The Menopausal Syndrome', Obstetrics and Gynecology72: 6S-11S.
13.
British National Formulary (1997) London: British Medical Association and the Royal Pharmaceutical Society.
14.
Castrogiovanni, P.
, de Luca, I.B., Teti, G., Corradi, I., Moggi, G., Zecca, R., Murru, S., Silvestri, D. and Fioretti, P. (1982) `Depressive States during the Menopause: A Preliminary Study of Endocrinological, Socioenvironmental and Personality Factors', in P. Fioretti, L. Martini, G.B. Mills and S.S.C. Yen (eds) The Menopause: Clinical, Endocrinological, and Pathophysiological Aspects. New York: Academic Press.
15.
Coney, S.
(1994) The Menopause Industry. Alameda, CA: Hunter House.
16.
Conrad, P.
and Schneider, J.W. (1980) Deviance and Medicalization: From Badness to Sickness. St Louis: C.V. Mosby.
17.
Corby, N.
and Zarit, J.M. (1983) `Old and Alone: The Unmarried in Later Life', in R.B. Weg (ed.) Sexuality in the Later Years: Roles and Behavior, New York: Academic Press.
18.
Ehrenreich, B.
and English, D. (1978) For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Experts' Advice to Women. Garden City: Anchor Books.
19.
Ferin, M.
, Jewelewicz, R. and Warren, M. (1993) The Menstrual Cycle: Physiology, Reproductive Disorders, and Infertility. New York: Oxford University Press.
20.
Formanek, R.
(1990) `Continuity and Change and "the Change of Life": Premodern Views of the Menopause', in R. Formanek (ed.) The Meanings of Menopause: Historical, Medical, and Clinical Perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
21.
Foster, P.
(1995) Women and the Health Care Industry. Buckingham: Open University Press.
22.
Gannon, L.
(1985) Menstrual Disorders and Menopause: Biological, Psychological, and Cultural Research. New York: Praeger.
23.
Gannon, L.
(1989) `Dysmenorrhoea, Premenstrual Syndrome and the Menopause', in S. Pearce and J. Wardle (eds) The Practice of Behavioural Medicine. Oxford: British Psychological Society.
24.
Gannon, L.
(1990) `The Endocrinology of Menopause', in R. Formanek (ed.) The Meanings of Menopause: Historical, Medical, and Clinical Perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
25.
Gannon, L.
(1994) `Sexuality and Menopause', in P.Y.L. Choi and P. Nicolson (eds) Female Sexuality: Psychology, Biology and Social Context. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
26.
Gannon, L.
(1997) `Perspectives on Biological, Social and Psychological Phenomena in Middle- and Old-Age Women: Interference or Intervention?', in S. Clancy and L. DiLalla (eds) Assessment and Intervention Issues across the Life-span. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.
27.
Gannon, L.
, Stevens, J. and Stecker, T. (1997) `A Content Analysis of Obstetrics/Gynecology Scholarship: Implications for Women's Health', Women and Health26: 43-57.
28.
George, G.C.W.
, Utian, W.H., Beumont, P.J.V. and Beardwood, C.J. (1973) `Effect of Exogenous Oestrogens on Minor Psychiatric Symptoms in Postmenopausal Women', South African Medical Journal47: 2387-2388.
29.
Gerdes, L.C.
, EtPhil, D.L., Sonnendecker, E.W.W. and Polakow, E.S. (1982) `Psychological Changes Effected by Estrogen-Progesterone and Clonidine Treatment in Climacteric Women', American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology142: 98-104.
30.
Hallstrom, T.
and Samuelson, S. (1990) `Changes in Women's Sexual Desire in Middle Age: The Longitudinal Study of Women in Gothenburg', Archives of Sexual Behavior19: 259-268.
31.
Hansen, F.J.
and Osborne, D. (1995) `Portrayal of Women and Elderly Patients in Psychotropic Drug Advertisements', Women and Therapy16: 129-141.
32.
Hoberman, J.M.
and Yesalis, C.E. (1995) `The History of Synthetic Testosterone', Scientific AmericanFebruary: 76-81.
33.
Hoon, P.W.
, Bruce, K. and Kinchloe, B. (1982) `Does the Menstrual Cycle Play a Role in Sexual Arousal?'Psychophysiology19: 21-27.
34.
Hunter, M.
(1990) Your Menopause: Prepare Now for a Positive Future. London: Pandora.
35.
Kahn, A.
and Holt, L. (1987) Menopause: The Best Years of Your Life?London: Bloomsbury.
36.
Kaufert, P.
(1982) `Anthropology and the Menopause: The Development of a Theoretical Framework', Maturitas4: 181-193.
37.
Kaufert, P.
and Gilbert, P. (1986) `The Context of Menopause: Psychotropic Drug Use and Menopausal Status', Social Science and Medicine23: 747-755.
38.
Kinsey, A.C.
, Pomeroy, W.B., Martin, C.E. and Gebhard, P.H. (1953) Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders.
39.
Koeske, R.K.
(1980) `Theoretical Perspectives on Menstrual Cycle Research: The Relevance of Attributional Approaches for the Perception and Explanation of Premenstrual Emotionality', in A.J. Dan, E.A. Graham and C.P. Beecher (eds) The Menstrual Cycle, Volume 1: A Synthesis of Interdisciplinary Research. New York: Springer Publishing.
40.
Leiblum, S.R.
and Swartzman, L.D. (1986) `Women's Attitudes Toward the Menopause: An Update', Maturitas8: 47-56.
41.
Lennon, M.C.
(1987) `Is Menopause Depressing? An Investigation of the Perspectives', Sex Roles17: 1-16.
42.
L'Hermite, M.
(1990) `Risks of Estrogens and Progestogens', Maturitas12: 215-246.
43.
Lorber, J.
(1994) Paradoxes of Gender. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
44.
McKinlay, J.B.
, McKinlay, S.J. and Brambilla, D. (1987) `The Relative Contributions of Endocrine Changes and Social Circumstances to Depression in Mid-Aged Women', Journal of Health and Social Behavior28: 345-363.
45.
McKinlay, S.J.
, and Jeffreys, M. (1974) `The Menopausal Syndrome', British Journal of Preventative and Social Medicine28: 108-115.
46.
Meuwissen, I.
and Over, R. (1992) `Sexual Arousal Phases of the Human Menstrual Cycle', Archives of Sexual Behavior21: 101-120.
47.
Miles, A.
(1991) Women, Health and Medicine. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
48.
Oakley, A.
(1993) Essays on Women, Medicine, and Health. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
49.
Olweus, D.
, Mattsson, A., Schalling, D. and Low, H. (1980) `Testosterone, Aggression, Physical, and Personality Dimensions in Normal Adolescent Males', Psychosomatic Medicine42: 253-269.
50.
Physicians' Desk Reference (1997) Montvale, NJ: Medical Economics Company.
51.
Poller, L.
, Thomson, J.M. and Coope, J. (1980) `A Double-Blind Cross-Over Study of Piperazine Oestrone Sulphate and Placebo with Coagulation Studies', British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology87: 718-725.
52.
Rubinow, D.R.
and Schmidt, P.J. (1996) `Androgens, Brain, and Behavior', American Journal of Psychiatry153: 974-984.
53.
Runciman, I.
(1978) `Sexual Problems in the Senior World', in R.L. Solnick (ed.) Sexuality and Aging. Los Angeles: Southern California Press.
54.
Sarrel, P.M.
(1990) `Sexuality and Menopause', Obstetrics and Gynecology75: 26S-35S.
55.
Schmidt, P.J.
and Rubinow, D.R. (1991) `Menopause-Related Affective Disorders: A Justification for Further Study', American Journal of Psychiatry148: 844-852.
56.
Schreiner-Engel, P.
, Schiani, R.C., Smith, H. and White, D. (1981) `Sexual Arousability and the Menstrual Cycle', Psychosomatic Medicine43: 199-213.
57.
Seaman, B.
and Seaman, G. (1977) Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones. New York: Rawson Associates.
58.
Slob, A.K.
, Ernste, M. and van der Werfften Bosch, J.J. (1991) `Menstrual Cycle Phase and Sexual Arousability in Women', Archives of Sexual Behavior20: 567-577.
59.
Smith-Rosenberg, C.
(1985) `Puberty to Menopause: The Cycle of Femininity in Nineteenth-Century America', in C. Smith-Rosenberg (ed.) Disorderly Conduct. New York: Knopf.
60.
Steiner, M.
(1992) `Female-Specific Mood Disorders', Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology35: 599-611.
61.
Stevens, R.
(1971) American Medicine and the Public Interest. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
62.
Stoppard, M.
(1994) Menopause. London: Carroll and Brown.
63.
Strong, P.M.
(1979) `Sociological Imperialism and the Progression of Medicine', Social Science and Medicine13A: 199-215.
64.
Studd, J.
(1989) `Prophylactic Oophorectomy', British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology96: 506-509.
65.
Szasz, T.
(1980) Sex by Prescription. New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday.
66.
Thomson, J.
and Oswald, I. (1977) `Effect of Oestrogen on the Sleep, Mood, and Anxiety of Menopausal Women', British Medical Journal2: 317-319.
67.
Tuana, N.
(1989) Feminism and Science. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
68.
Tuch, R.H.
(1975) `The Relationship between a Mother's Menstrual Status and her Response to Illness in her Child', Psychosomatic Medicine37: 388-394.
69.
Utian, W.H.
(1972) `The Mental Tonic Effect of Oestrogens Administered to Oophorectomized Females', South African Medical Journal46: 1079-82.
70.
Van den Akker, O.B.A.
, Eves, F.F., Service, S. and Lennon, B. (1995) `Menstrual Cycle Symptom Reporting in Three British Ethnic Groups', Social Science and Medicine40: 1417-23.
71.
Walker, A.
(1994) `Mood and Well-Being in Consecutive Menstrual Cycles: Methodological and Theoretical Implications', Psychology of Women Quarterly18: 271-290.
72.
Walling, M.
, Andersen, B.L. and Johnson, S.R. (1990) `Hormonal Replacement Therapy for Postmenopausal Women: A Review of Sexual Outcomes and Related Gynecologic Effects', Archives of Sexual Behavior19: 119-137.
73.
Weideger, P.
(1977) Menstruation and Menopause. New York: Knopf.
74.
Wilson, R.
(1966) Feminine Forever. New York: M. Evans.
