In the late 19th and early 20th century, indus trialized countries introduced a variety of pen sion schemes to sustain elderly people. These initial schemes may broadly be classified as 'contributory' or 'assistance-based'. However, over time, there has been a convergence to wards dual mandatory systems where the ma jority receive contribution- based pensions, while the poor depend on tax-financed in come-tested assistance schemes. Within this general convergence, however, New Zealand, and to a lesser extent Denmark, represent de viant cases. This article seeks to explain both the common pattern and the deviant cases, and asks whether this difference is likely to persist.
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