Reactive Black 5 (RB5), an azo dye, is released in large quantities in the water systems of developing countries, affecting many ecosystems and humans. This study explored converting onion skin, an agricultural waste product, into biochar (onion skin biochars, OSBs) through pyrolysis at 500°C to 700 °C (OSB500–OSB700) under nitrogen flow and comprehensively characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, zeta potential analysis, and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller surface area measurements. Among these, OSB700 exhibited the highest adsorption capacity for RB5 (92.0%), significantly outperforming OSB500 (33.9%) and OSB600 (35.6%). The removal efficiency was optimized under acidic conditions (pH 3) due to favorable zeta potential interactions. When combined with near-infrared radiation (NIR) photothermal heating at 5 W cm2-1, OSB700 demonstrated enhanced RB5 adsorption (81.09% removal at 1000 ppm RB5) and a photothermal-induced rise in solution temperature from 27.1°C to 70°C within 7 minutes. The cellular toxicity results indicated that OSB700 possesses a high level of biocompatibility. Even at a concentration of 100 μg mL−1, OSB700 did not induce cytotoxicity in human vascular endothelial EA.hy926 cells. Moreover, RB5-induced cytotoxicity in EA.hy926 cells (37.5% viability at 1000 ppm) was significantly alleviated to 91.9% viability after treatment with NIR-exposed OSB700. These results suggest that OSBs has considerable potential as a low-cost sorbent for removing RB5 from aqueous phases. When OSB700 was combined with NIR irradiation, it displayed enhanced RB5 adsorption activity and reduced RB5-induced cytotoxicity.
LiqunXWeimingZDiW, et al.Heat storage capacity and temporal-spatial response in the soil temperature of albic soil amended with maize-derived biochar for 2 years. Soil and Tillage Research2021; 205: 104762.
2.
XieTReddyKRWangC, et al.Characteristics and applications of biochar for environmental remediation: a review. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol2015; 45: 939–969.
3.
ChatterjeeRSajjadiBMatternDL, et al.Ultrasound cavitation intensified amine functionalization: a feasible strategy for enhancing CO2 capture capacity of biochar. Fuel2018; 225: 287–298.
4.
AhirwarUDubeyGSinghN, et al.Interactive effect of climate factors, biochar and insecticide chlorpyrifos on methane consumption and microbial abundance in a tropical vertisol. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf2018; 157: 409–416.
5.
PukalchikMMerclFTerekhovaV,et al.Biochar, wood ash and humic substances mitigating trace elements stress in contaminated sandy loam soil: evidence from an integrative approach. Chemosphere2018; 203: 228–238.
6.
TrakalLMichálkováZBeesleyL, et al.AMOchar: amorphous manganese oxide coating of biochar improves its efficiency at removing metal(loid)s from aqueous solutions. Sci Total Environ2018; 625: 71–78.
7.
ZhangXZhangPYuanX, et al.Effect of pyrolysis temperature and correlation analysis on the yield and physicochemical properties of crop residue biochar. Bioresour Technol2020; 296: 122318.
8.
WangDJiangPZhangH,et al.Biochar production and applications in agro and forestry systems: a review. Sci Total Environ2020; 723: 137775.
9.
WuLLiBLiuM. Influence of aromatic structure and substitution of carboxyl groups of aromatic acids on their sorption to biochars. Chemosphere2018; 210: 239–246.
10.
KarakoyunNKubilaySAktasN, et al.Hydrogel–biochar composites for effective organic contaminant removal from aqueous media. Desalination2011; 280: 319–325.
11.
KumarNSAsifMPouloseAM, et al.Date palm fiber agro-waste biomass for efficient removal of 2, 4, 6-trichlorophenol from aqueous solution: characterization, kinetics, isotherms studies and cost-effective analysis. Desalin Water Treat2024; 318: 100405.
12.
AngaruGKRPalCALingamdinneLP, et al.High-performance MnO2 embedded fly ash zeolite applied for effective mineralization of bisphenol-A and sorption of Congo red: mechanism, real water application, and toxicity assessment. Chem Eng Sci2024; 286: 119700.
13.
JayamaniTQueenJEVithiyaBSM, , et al. Catalytic reduction of anionic and cationic toxic dyes and evaluation of antimicrobial activity using green synthesized palladium nanoparticles employing Carica papaya aqueous leaf extract. J Saudi Chem Soc2023; 27: 101759.
14.
McMullanGMeehanCConneelyA, et al.Microbial decolourisation and degradation of textile dyes. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol2001; 56: 81–87.
15.
PearceCILloydJRGuthrieJT. The removal of colour from textile wastewater using whole bacterial cells: a review. Dyes Pigm2003; 58: 179–196.
16.
AhmadAHameedB. Fixed-bed adsorption of reactive azo dye onto granular activated carbon prepared from waste. J Hazard Mater2010; 175: 298–303.
17.
AlaguprathanaMPoonkothaiMAmeenF, et al.Sodium hydroxide pre-treated Aspergillus flavus biomass for the removal of reactive black 5 and its toxicity evaluation. Environ Res2022; 214: 113859.
18.
MiyashiroCSMateusGAPSantosD, et al.Synthesis and performance evaluation of a magnetic biocoagulant in the removal of reactive black 5 dye in aqueous medium. Mater Sci Eng: C2021; 119: 111523.
19.
ZhuangZChengXCaoL, et al.Secondary bond interface assembly of polyethyleneimine on zein microparticles for rapid adsorption of Reactive Black 5. Colloids Surf B2023; 225: 113247.
20.
MahmoudMEAmiraMFSeleimSM, et al.Multifunctionalized graphene oxide@ nanopolyaniline@ zirconium silicate nanocomposite for rapid microwable removal of dyes. J Nanostruct Chem2021; 11: 645–662.
21.
HassanMMCarrCM. A critical review on recent advancements of the removal of reactive dyes from dyehouse effluent by ion-exchange adsorbents. Chemosphere2018; 209: 201–219.
22.
LiuXZhangJJiangJ, et al.Biochemical degradation pathway of reactive blue 13 by Candida rugopelliculosa HXL-2. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad2011; 65: 135–141.
23.
CaoXWangHLiX-q,et al.Enhanced degradation of azo dye by a stacked microbial fuel cell-biofilm electrode reactor coupled system. Bioresour Technol. 2017;227:273–278.
24.
NguyenTTChenH-HToTH, et al.Development of biochars derived from water bamboo (Zizania latifolia) shoot husks using pyrolysis and ultrasound-assisted pyrolysis for the treatment of Reactive Black 5 (RB5) in wastewater. Water (Basel)2021; 13: 1615.
25.
PadmeshTVijayaraghavanKSekaranG,et al.Biosorption of acid blue 15 using fresh water macroalga Azolla filiculoides: batch and column studies. Dyes Pigm2006; 71: 77–82.
26.
HeibatiBRodriguez-CoutoSAmraneA, et al.Uptake of Reactive Black 5 by pumice and walnut activated carbon: chemistry and adsorption mechanisms. J Ind Eng Chem2014; 20: 2939–2947.
27.
GüzelFSayğılıHSayğılıGA,et al.New low-cost nanoporous carbonaceous adsorbent developed from carob (Ceratonia siliqua) processing industry waste for the adsorption of anionic textile dye: characterization, equilibrium and kinetic modeling. J Mol Liq2015; 206: 244–255.
28.
JabeenABhattiHN. Adsorptive removal of reactive green 5 (RG-5) and direct yellow 50 (DY-50) from simulated wastewater by Mangifera indica seed shell and its magnetic composite: batch and column study. Environ Technol Innov2021; 23: 101685.
29.
Ministry of Agriculture. Onion production map and yield. Taiwan; 2022.
30.
Stuart-FoxDNewtonEClusella-TrullasS.Thermal consequences of colour and near-infrared reflectance. Philos Trans R Soc B: Biol Sci. 2017;372:20160345.
31.
YinRJingBHeS, et al.Near-infrared light to heat conversion in peroxydisulfate activation with MoS2: a new photo-activation process for water treatment. Water Res2021; 190: 116720.
32.
XiangHZhaoLYuL, et al.Self-assembled organic nanomedicine enables ultrastable photo-to-heat converting theranostics in the second near-infrared biowindow. Nat Commun2021; 12: 218.
33.
ManimaranDSulthanaAElangovanN. Reactive black 5 induced developmental defects via potentiating apoptotic cell death in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos. Pharm Pharmacol Int J2018; 6: 449–452.
34.
MunagapatiVSWenJ-CPanC-L, et al.Adsorptive removal of anionic dye (Reactive Black 5) from aqueous solution using chemically modified banana peel powder: kinetic, isotherm, thermodynamic, and reusability studies. Int J Phytoremediat2020; 22: 267–278.
35.
AhmadAIdrisAHameedB. Organic dye adsorption on activated carbon derived from solid waste. Desalin Water Treat2013; 51: 2554–2563.
36.
IpAWBarfordJPMcKayG. A comparative study on the kinetics and mechanisms of removal of Reactive Black 5 by adsorption onto activated carbons and bone char. Chem Eng J2010; 157: 434–442.
37.
SanthyKSelvapathyP. Removal of reactive dyes from wastewater by adsorption on coir pith activated carbon. Bioresour Technol2006; 97: 1329–1336.
38.
TzeMWArouaMKSzlachtaM. Palm shell-based activated carbon for removing reactive black 5 dye: equilibrium and kinetics studies. BioResources2016; 11: 1432–1447.
39.
HsuehC-LLuY-WHungC-C, et al.Adsorption kinetic, thermodynamic and desorption studies of CI Reactive Black 5 on a novel photo-assisted fenton catalyst. Dyes Pigm2007; 75: 130–135.
40.
Al-DegsYSEl-BarghouthiMIEl-SheikhAH,et al.Effect of solution pH, ionic strength, and temperature on adsorption behavior of reactive dyes on activated carbon. Dyes Pigm2008; 77: 16–23.
41.
ZhangPO’ConnorDWangY, et al.A green biochar/iron oxide composite for methylene blue removal. J Hazard Mater2020; 384: 121286.
42.
AiLZhangCLiaoF, et al.Removal of methylene blue from aqueous solution with magnetite loaded multi-wall carbon nanotube: kinetic, isotherm and mechanism analysis. J Hazard Mater2011; 198: 282–290.
43.
KimHWatthanaphanitASaitoN. Simple solution plasma synthesis of hierarchical nanoporous MnO2 for organic dye removal. ACS Sustain Chem Eng2017; 5: 5842–5851.
44.
NarasimharaoKAngaruGKRMominZH, et al.Orange waste biochar-magnesium silicate (OBMS) composite for enhanced removal of U (VI) ions from aqueous solutions. J Water Process Eng2023; 51: 103359.
45.
LingamdinneLPAngaruGKRPalCA, et al.Insights into kinetics, thermodynamics, and mechanisms of chemically activated sunflower stem biochar for removal of phenol and bisphenol-A from wastewater. Sci Rep2024; 14: 4267.
46.
MaqboolMSadafSBhattiHN, et al.Sodium alginate and polypyrrole composites with algal dead biomass for the adsorption of Congo red dye: kinetics, thermodynamics and desorption studies. Surf Interf2021; 25: 101183.
47.
KamranUBhattiHNNoreenS, et al.Chemically modified sugarcane bagasse-based biocomposites for efficient removal of acid red 1 dye: kinetics, isotherms, thermodynamics, and desorption studies. Chemosphere2022; 291: 132796.
48.
Bakht ShokouhiSDehghanzadehRAslaniH, et al.Activated carbon catalyzed ozonation (ACCO) of Reactive Blue 194 azo dye in aqueous saline solution: experimental parameters, kinetic and analysis of activated carbon properties. J Water Process Eng2020; 35: 101188.
49.
ZhangMLinKLiX, et al.Removal of phosphate from water by paper mill sludge biochar. Environ Pollut2022; 293: 118521.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
