The Golden Girls is a highly popular television series which, since its inception in 1985, has received praise for presenting the elderly on television in a positive light. Research, however, has not investigated the messages of the show in any depth and the current study aims to remedy this. A discursive analysis of the show is conducted to identify ways in which the show marks age and achieves humorous effect. The multiple ways in which these effects are achieved are schematized in typology form. Indications that age marking and humor overlap considerably are interpreted in terms of propagating views of aging inconsistent with the show's public agenda'. Specifically, the link, which has theoretical implications, is seen as perpetuating stereotypes of the elderly, by making counter-stereotypical portrayals, quite literally, laughable. The results are discussed in terms of various theoretical positions, as well as more applied production issues.
Alberts, J.K. (in press) `An Inferential/Strategic Explanation for the Social Organization of Teases', Journal of Language and Social Psychology.
2.
Allport, G.W. (1954) The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
3.
Ansello, E.F. (1978, November) `Broadcast images: The Older Woman in Television', paper presented at the 31st annual scientific meeting of the Gerontological Society, Dallas, TX.
4.
Aronoff, C. (1974) `Old Age in Prime Time', Journal of Communication24: 86-87.
5.
Atkins, T.V. , Jenkins, M.C. and Perkins, M.H. (1990/1991) `Portrayal of Persons in Television Commercials Age 50 and Older', Psychology, A Journal of Human Behavior27: 30-37.
6.
Baetens Beardsmore, H. (1984) `Introduction', International Journal of the Sociology of Language48: 5-10.
7.
Ball-Rokeach, S.J. and DeFleur, M.L. (1976) `A Dependency Model of Mass-Media Effects', Communication Research3: 3-21.
8.
Barrick, A.L. , Hutchinson, R.L. and Deckers, L.H. (1990) `Humor, Aggression and Aging', The Gerontologist30: 675-678.
9.
Best and Worst by Numbers, The (1989) TV Guide, 8 July: 12-13.
10.
Bishop, J.M. and Krause, D.R. (1984) `Depictions of Aging and Old Age on Saturday Morning Television', The Gerontologist24: 91-95.
11.
Bleise, N. (1982) `Media in the Rocking Chair: Media Uses and Functions among the Elderly', in G. Gumpert and R. Cathcart (eds) Intermedia: Interpersonal Communication in a Media World (3rd edn), 624-634. New York: Oxford University Press.
12.
Boden, D. and Bielby, D.D. (1986) `The Way it Was: Topical Organization in Elderly Conversation', Language and Communication6: 73-89.
13.
Cassata, M. and Irwin, B. (1989) `Going for the Gold: Prime Time's Sexy Seniors Have Turned Around Their Age Group's TV Image', Media and Values45: 12-14.
14.
Coleman, P.G. (1974) `Measuring Reminiscence Characteristics from Conversation as Adaptive Features of Old Age', International Journal of Aging and Human Development5: 281-294.
15.
Coleman, P.G. (1986) Aging and Reminiscence Processes: Social and Clinical Implications. New York: Wiley.
16.
Coupland, J. , Coupland, N., Giles, H. and Henwood, K. (1991) `Formulating Age: Dimensions of Age Identity in Elderly Talk', Discourse Processes14: 87-106.
17.
Coupland, J. , Coupland, N., Giles, H. and Wiemann, J.W. (1988) `My Life in Your Hands: Processes of Self-disclosure in Intergenerational Talk', in N. Coupland (ed.) Styles of Discourse, pp. 201-253. London: Croom Helm.
18.
Coupland, N. and Coupland, J. (1990) `Language and Later Life', in H. Giles and W.P. Robinson (eds) Handbook of Language and Social Psychology, pp. 451-470). New York: Wiley.
19.
Coupland, N. , Coupland, J. and Giles, H. (1989) `Telling age in later life: Identity and face implications', Text9: 129-151.
20.
Coupland, N. , Coupland, J. and Giles, H. (1991a) Language, Society and the Elderly: Discourse, Identity and Aging. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
21.
Coupland, N. , Coupland, J., Giles, H. and Henwood, K. (1988) `Accommodating the Elderly: Invoking and Extending a Theory', Language in Society17: 1-42.
22.
Coupland, N. , Coupland, J., Giles, H. and Henwood, K. (1991b) `Intergenerational Talk: Goal Consonance and Intergroup Dissonance', in K. Tracy (ed.) Understanding Face-to-Face Interaction: Issues Linking Goals and Discourse, pp. 79-100. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
23.
Dail, P.W. (1988) `Prime-Time Portrayals of Older Adults in the Context of Family Life', The Gerontologist28: 700-706.
24.
Danowski, J. (1975) `Informational Aging: Interpersonal and Mass Communication Patterns in a Retirement Community', paper presented at meeting of the Gerontological Society, Louisville, KY.
25.
Davies, L. (1977) `Attitudes Toward Old Age and Aging as Shown by Humor', The Gerontologist17: 220-226.
26.
Davis, R.H. (1984) `TV's Boycott of Old Age', Aging346: 12-17.
27.
Davis, R.H. and Davis, J.A. (1985) TV's Image of the Elderly. Lexington, KY: Lexington Books.
28.
Davis, R.H. and Kubey, R.W. (1982) `Growing Old on Television and With Television', in D. Pearl, L. Bouthilet and J. Lazar (eds) Television and Behavior: Ten Years of Scientific Progress and Implications for the Eighties, Vol. II, pp. 201-208. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.
29.
Dillard, J.P. , Henwood, K., Giles, H., Coupland, N. and Coupland, J. (1990) `Compliance Gaining Young and Old: Beliefs about Influence in Different Age Groups', Communication Reports3: 84-91.
30.
Dillon, K. and Jones, B. (1981) `Attitudes Toward Aging Portrayed by Birthday Cards', International Journal of Aging and Human Development13: 79-84.
31.
Downing, J.D.H. (1988) ` “The Cosby Show” and American racial discourse', in G. Smitherman-Donaldson and T.A. van Dijk (eds) Discourse and Discrimination, pp. 46-73. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University.
32.
Elliot, J. (1984) `The Daytime Television Drama Portrayal of Older Adults', The Gerontologist24: 628-632.
33.
Farr, R.M. and Moscovici, S., eds (1984) Social Representations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
34.
Fox, S. and Giles, H. (forthcoming) `Intergenerational Contact and Communication: A Critical Review and New Model', Journal of Ageing Studies.
35.
Gans, H.J. (1968) The Uses of Television and Their Educational Implications. New York: The Center for Urban Education.
36.
Gerbner, G. , Gross, L. and Signorelli, N. (1979) `Aging with Television: Age Roles and Conceptions of Social Reality Related to Aging', final report (AoA Grant 1977-8). Annenberg School for Communications, University of Pennsylvania at Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
37.
Gerbner, G. , Gross, L., Signorelli, N. and Morgan, M. (1980) `Aging With Television: Images on Television Drama and Conceptions of Social Reality', Journal of Communication11: 141-148.
38.
Giles, H. , Bourhis, R.Y. and Taylor, D.M. (1977) `Towards a Theory of Language in Ethnic Group Relations', in H. Giles (ed.) Language, Ethnicity, and Intergroup Relations, pp. 307-348. London: Academic Press.
39.
Greenberg, B.S. , Korzenny, F. and Atkin, C. (1980) `The Portrayal of Aging: Trends on Commercial Television', Research on Aging1: 319-334.
40.
Harris, A.J. and Feinberg, J.F. (1977) `Television and Aging: Is What You See What You Get?'The Gerontologist17: 464-468.
41.
Harwood, J.T. (1992) `Don't Make Me Laugh: Representations of Age in a Humorous Context', unpublished MA thesis, University of California, Santa Barbara.
42.
Harwood, J.T. , Giles, H. and Bourhis, R.Y. (forthcoming) `The Genesis of Vitality Theory: Historical Patterns and Discoursal Dimensions', International Journal of the Sociology of Language.
43.
Helfrich, H. (1979) `Age Markers in Speech', in K.R. Scherer and H. Giles (eds), Social Markers in Speech, pp. 63-108. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
44.
Hewstone, M. and Brown, R. (1986) `Contact Is Not Enough: An Intergroup Perspective on the “Contact Hypothesis” ', in M. Hewstone and R. Brown (eds) Contact and Conflict in Intergroup Encounters, pp. 1-44. Oxford: Blackwell.
45.
Hewstone, M. , Hopkins, N. and Routh, D.A. (in preparation) `Cognitive models of stereotype change (4): Generalization and subtyping in young people's views of the police', manuscript, University of Bristol, UK.
46.
Huyck, M.H. and Duchon, J. (1986) `Over the Miles: Coping, Communicating and Commiserating Through Age-Theme Greeting Cards', in L. Nahemow, K.A. McCluskey-Fawcett and P.E. McGhee (eds) Humor and Aging, pp. 139-160. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
47.
Katz, E. , Blumler, J.G. and Gurevitch, M. (1974) `Utilization of Mass Communication by the Individual', in J.G. Blumler and E. Katz (eds) The Uses of Mass Communications: Current Perspectives on Gratifications Research, pp. 19-32. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
48.
Kehl, D.G. (1985) `Thalia meets Tithonus: Gerontological Wit and Humor in Literature', The Gerontologist25: 539-544.
49.
Kelly, L.E. , Knox, V., Gekoski, W.L. and Evans, K.M. (1987) `Age-Related Humor as an Indicator of Attitudes and Perceptions', Journal of Social Psychology127: 245-250.
50.
Kite, M.E. and Johnson, B.T. (1988) `Attitudes Toward Older and Younger Adults: A Meta-Analysis', Psychology and Aging3: 233-244.
51.
Koestler, A. (1964) The Act of Creation. London: Hutchinson.
52.
Kubey, R.W. (1980) `Television and Aging: Past, Present and Future', The Gerontologist20: 16-35.
53.
Lalljee, M. , Brown, L.B. and Ginsberg, G.P. (1984) `Attitudes: Disposition, Behavior or Evaluation', British Journal of Social Psychology23: 233-244.
54.
Levinson, R.M. (1973) `From Olive Oyle to Sweet Polly Purebread: Sex Role Stereotypes and Televised Cartoons', Journal of Popular Culture9: 561-572.
55.
LoSciuto, L.A. (1972) `A National Inventory of Television Viewing Behavior', in E.A. Rubenstein, G.A. Comstock and J.P. Murray (eds) Television and Social Behaviour, Vol. IV, pp. 33-86. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
56.
McGhee, P.E. (1977) `A Model of the Origins and Early Development of Incongruity Based Humor', in A.J. Chapman and H.C. Foot (eds) It's a Funny Thing, Humor, pp. 27-36. Oxford: Pergamon.
57.
Marc, D. (1989) Comic Visions: Television Comedy and American Culture. Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman.
58.
Mares, M.-L. (1991, May) `Elderly Viewers' Responses to Televised Portrayals of Old Age: Social Comparison and Mood Matching', paper presented at the meeting of the International Communication Association, Chicago, IL.
59.
Meertz, R.J. (1970, May) `Analysis of the Portrayal of Older Americans in Commercial Television Programming', paper presented at the International Communication Association Conference, Minneapolis, MN.
60.
Merriam, S. (1980) `The Concept and Function of Reminiscence: A Review of the Research', The Gerontologist20: 604-609.
61.
Meyersohn, R.A. (1961) `A Critical Examination of Commercial Entertainment', in R.W. Kleemeier (ed.) Aging and Leisure, pp. 243-272. New York: Oxford University Press.
62.
Mills, N. (1987) ` “Golden Girls” Polishes Its Scripts', Los Angeles Times, 30 October, Part VI: 28-30.
63.
Mundorf, N. and Brownell, W. (1990) `Media Preferences of Older and Younger Adults', The Gerontologist30: 685-691.
64.
Nahemow, L. (1986) `Preface', in L. Nahemow, K.A. McCluskey-Fawcett and P.E. McGhee (eds) Humor and Aging, pp. xv-xviii. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
65.
Nahemow, L. , McCluskey-Fawcett, K.A. and McGhee, P.E., eds (1986) Humor and Aging. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
66.
Northcott, H. (1975) `Too Young, Too Old—Age in the World of Television', The Gerontologist15: 184-186.
67.
Nussbaum, J.F. , Thompson, T. and Robinson, J.D. (1989) Communication and Aging. New York: Harper and Row.
68.
Palmore, E.B. (1971) `Attitudes Toward the Aged Shown by Humor', The Gerontologist11: 181-186.
69.
Parker, E. , Barry, D. and Smythe, D. (1955) The Television-Radio Audience and Religion. New York: Harper.
70.
Passuth, P.M. and Cook, F.L. (1985) `Effects of Television Viewing on Knowledge and Attitudes about Older Adults: A Critical Re-examination', The Gerontologist25: 69-77.
71.
Peterson, M. (1973) `The Visibility and Image of Old People on Television', Journalism Quarterly50: 569-573.
72.
Pettigrew, T.F. (1971) Racially Separate or Together?New York: McGraw-Hill.
73.
Pettigrew, T.F. (1986) `The Intergroup Contact Hypothesis Reconsidered', in M. Hewstone and R. Brown (eds) Contact and Conflict in Intergroup Encounters, pp. 169-195. Oxford: Blackwell.
74.
Petty, R.E. and Cacioppo, J.T. (1981) Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary Approaches. Dubuque, IA: W.C. Brown.
75.
Pfefferman, R.J. and Robinson, J.D. (submitted) `Portrayals of Influence Attempts on Prime-Time, Family Oriented Situational Comedies: Are Older Characters Fairly Represented?'
76.
Polivka, J.S. (1988) `Is America Aging Successfully? A Message from Media Cartoons', Communication and Cognition21: 97-106.
77.
Potter, J. and Wetherell, M. (1987) Discourse and Social Psychology: Beyond Attitudes and Behavior. London: Sage.
78.
Richman, J. (1977) `The Foolishness and Wisdom of Age: Attitudes Toward the Elderly as Reflected in Jokes', The Gerontologist17: 210-219.
79.
Robinson, J.D. (1989) `Mass Media and the Elderly: A Uses and Dependency Interpretation', in J.F. Nussbaum (ed.) Life-span Communication: Normative Processes, pp. 319-338. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
80.
Rothbart, M. and John, O.P. (1985) `Social Categorization and Behavioral Episodes: A Cognitive Analysis of the Effects of Intergroup Contact', Journal of Social Issues41: 81-104.
81.
Rubin, A.M. (1986) `Television, Aging and Information Seeking', Language and Communication6: 125-137.
82.
Rubin, A.M. and Rubin, R.B. (1985) `Interface of Personal and Mediated Communication: A Research Agenda', Critical Studies in Mass Communication2: 36-53.
83.
Rubin, A.M. and Windahl, S. (1986) `The Uses and Dependency Model of Mass Communication', Critical Studies in Mass Communication3: 184-199.
84.
Schultz, T.R. (1976) `A Cognitive-developmental Analysis of Humor', in A.J. Chapman and H.C. Foot (eds) Humour and Laughter: Theory, Research and Applications, pp. 11-36. London: Wiley.
85.
Skinner, B.F. (1974) About Behaviorism. New York: Alfred Knopf.
86.
Smith, M.D. (1979) `The Portrayal of Elders in Magazine Cartoons', The Gerontologist19: 408-412.
87.
Smitherman-Donaldson, G. and van Dijk, T.A., eds (1988) Discourse and Discrimination. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University.
88.
Suls, J.M. (1977) `Cognitive and Disparagement Theories of Humor: A Theoretical and Empirical Synthesis', in A.J. Chapman and H.C. Foot (eds) It's a Funny Thing, Humor, pp. 41-46. Oxford: Pergamon.
89.
Tajfel, H. and Turner, J.C. (1979) `An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict', in W.C. Austin and S. Worchel (eds) The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, pp. 33-47. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
90.
Thorsheim, H. and Roberts, B. (1990) `Empowerment Through Storysharing: Communication and Reciprocal Social Support among Older Persons', in H. Giles, N. Coupland and J.M. Wiemann (eds) Communication, Health and the Elderly, pp. 114-125. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
91.
Vande Berg, L.R. and Trujillo, N. (1989) Organizational Life on Television. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
92.
van Dijk, T.A. , ed. (1985a) Discourse and Communication: New Approaches to the Analysis of Mass Media Discourse and Communication. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
93.
van Dijk, T.A. (1985b) `Introduction: Discourse Analysis in (Mass) Communication Research', in T.A. van Dijk (ed.) Discourse and Communication: New Approaches to the Analysis of Mass Media Discourse and Communication, pp. 1-12. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
94.
Variety (1990) `Top 100 All Time Film Rental Champs', Variety, 24 January: 46.
95.
Ventis, D.G. (1986) `Humor and Aging in Children's Picture Books: Is the Joke on Grandpa?', in L. Nahemow, K.A. McCluskey-Fawcett and P.E. McGhee (eds) Humor and Aging, pp. 223-232. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
96.
Weber, T. and Cameron, P. (1978) `Humor and Aging—A Response', The Gerontologist18: 73-76.
97.
Wiener, T. (1989) The Book of Video Lists. Lanham, MD: Madison Books.
98.
Wober, J.M. and Gunter, B. (1982) `Television and Personal Threat: Fact or Artifact? A British Survey', British Journal of Social Psychology21: 231-248.
99.
Zillman, D. (1983) `Disparagement humor', in P.E. McGhee and J.H. Goldstein (eds) Handbook of Humor Research: Vol. 1. Basic issues, pp. 85-108. New York: Springer.
100.
Zillman, D. (1988) `Mood Management: Using Entertainment to Full Advantage', in L. Donohew, H.E. Sypher and E.T. Higgins (eds) Communication, Social Cognition, and Affect, pp. 147-171. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
101.
Zillman, D. and Bryant, J. (1991) `Responding to Comedy: The Sense and Nonsense in Humor', in J. Bryant and D. Zillman (eds) Responding to the Screen: Reception and Reaction Processes, pp. 261-279. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
