Biofuel is an alternative fuel for diesel engines which is necessary to reduce exhaust emissions and helps to balance the depletion of fossil fuels. This study details the synthesis of bio-diesel and bio-oil from stone apple seeds (Aegle marmelos) through transesterification, direct oxygenate additive, and pyrolysis processes. The diesel engine is powered by the resulting stone apple methyl ester bio-diesel/diesel and bio-oil/diesel mixtures. In a test engine rig, the effectiveness and emission uniqueness of test fuel mixes were examined at various engine loads (EL = 3 kg–12 kg) and compression ratios (CR = 16–17.5) while maintaining a steady speed of 1500 r/min. Furthermore, engine performance and emissions for bio-diesel and bio-oil are measured and compared. The oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emission by bio-diesel and bio-oil opus were higher than neat diesel (FD). Also, carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions were measured to be lower. The improvements of BTE by 4.87% and decrement of CO by 18.8%, HC by 13.26% were observed with the trans-esterified bio-diesel/diesel opus compared to diesel at a higher CR and rated load conditions. The engine analysis responses revealed that the FBD blend showed enhanced performance and lower emissions except NOx compared to diesel fuel. Hence, trans-esterified bio-diesel is a greater diesel alternative than FBDE and FBO.
Mohamed NishathPKrishnaveniAMohamed ShameerP. Assessment of antioxidant impact on fuel stability and emission personality for Alexandrian laurel and poison nut bio-diesel. Fuel2020; 278: 118313. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118313.
2.
BaranitharanPKumananSSudhagarS. An intelligent novel approach for diesel engine life monitoring using infrared image processing technique. Environ Prog Sustain Energy2022; 41: e13712. DOI: 10.1002/ep.13712.
3.
BardalaiMBordoloiNKMahantaDK. Production and biodegradability analysis of bael shell pyrolysis oil. Mater Today Proc2017; 4: 603–610. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2017.01.063.
4.
MitraSGhoseAGujreN, et al.A review on environmental and socioeconomic perspectives of three promising biofuel plants Jatropha curcas, Pongamia pinnata and Mesua ferrea. Biomass Bioenergy2021; 151: 106173. DOI: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2021.106173.
5.
Heng TeohYGeok HowHWenLS, et al.Optimization of engine out responses with different bio-diesel fuel blends for energy transition. Fuel2022; 318: 123706. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2022.123706.
6.
YatishKVLalithambaHSSureshR, et al.Synthesis of bio-diesel from Garcinia gummi-gutta, Terminalia belerica and Aegle marmelos seed oil and investigation of fuel properties. Biofuels2018; 9: 121–128. DOI: 10.1080/17597269.2016.1259524.
7.
SelvanSSPandianPSSubathiraA, et al.Comparison of response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN) in optimization of aegle marmelos oil extraction for bio-diesel production. Arabian J Sci Eng2018; 43: 6119–6131. DOI: 10.1007/s13369-018-3272-5.
8.
KrishnamoorthiMMalayalamurthiRMohamed ShameerP. RSM based optimization of performance and emission characteristics of DI compression ignition engine fuelled with diesel/aeglemarmelos oil/diethyl ether blends at varying compression ratio, injection pressure and injection timing. Fuel2018; 221: 283–297. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2018.02.070.
9.
KolliVGadepalliSDebbarmaJ, et al. Experimental analysis on performance, combustion & emissions of a diesel engine fueled by Aegle marmelos seed oil bio-diesel with additives: graphene Nanosheets and oxygenated diethyl ether. Energy Sources, Part A Recovery, Util Environ Eff. 2020; 1–20. doi:10.1080/15567036.2020.1783393.
10.
KrishnamoorthiMMalayalamurthiR. Combined effect of compression ratio, injection pressure, and injection timing on performance and emission of a di compression ignition engine fueled with diesel-aegle marmelos oil-diethyl ether blends using response surface methodology. Energy Fuel2017; 31: 11362–11376. DOI: 10.1021/acs.energyfuels.7b01515.
11.
BardalaiMMahantaDK. Characterisation of the pyrolysis oil derived from bael shell (aegle marmelos). Environ Eng Research2016; 21: 180–187. DOI: 10.4491/eer.2015.142.
12.
BaranitharanPRameshKSakthivelR. Measurement of performance and emission distinctiveness of Aegle marmelos seed cake pyrolysis oil/diesel/TBHQ opus powered in a DI diesel engine using ANN and RSM. Measurement2019; 144: 366–380. DOI: 10.1016/j.measurement.2019.05.037.
13.
BaghelPSakhiyaAKKaushalP. Influence of temperature on slow pyrolysis of Prosopis Juliflora: an experimental and thermodynamic approach. Renew Energy2022; 185: 538–551. DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2021.12.053.
14.
OsmanAIFarghaliMIharaI, et al.Materials, fuels, upgrading, economy, and life cycle assessment of the pyrolysis of algal and lignocellulosic biomass: a review. Environ Chem Lett2023; 21: 1419–1476. DOI: 10.1007/s10311-023-01573-7.
15.
DharmalingamBBalamuruganSWetwatanaU, et al.Comparison of neural network and response surface methodology techniques on optimization of bio-diesel production from mixed waste cooking oil using heterogeneous biocatalyst. Fuel2023; 340: 127503. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2023.127503.
16.
RajuSParamasivamB. A complex proportional assessment and gray relational analysis methodology hybrid optimization of compression ignition engine distinctiveness fuelled by dual feed stock pyrolysis of Annona squamosa seed particles and Aegle marmelos pressed seed cake pyrolytic liquid-diesel opus. Environ Prog Sustain Energy2023; 42: e14135. DOI: 10.1002/ep.14135.
17.
ThangarasuVSiddharthRRamanathanA. Modeling of process intensification of bio-diesel production from Aegle Marmelos Correa seed oil using microreactor assisted with ultrasonic mixing. Ultrason Sonochem2020; 60: 104764. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2019.104764.
18.
PathiranaCKMadhujithTEeswaraJ. Bael (aegle marmelos L. Corrêa), a medicinal tree with immense economic potentials. Adv Agri2020; 2020: 1–13. DOI: 10.1155/2020/8814018.
19.
SindhanaiSSSaravana PandianPSubathiraA, et al.Artificial neural network modeling-coupled genetic algorithm optimization of supercritical methanol transesterification of Aegle marmelos oil to bio-diesel. Biofuels2021; 12: 797–805. DOI: 10.1080/17597269.2018.1542567.
20.
ParamasivamBKumananSKavimaniV, et al.Fuzzy-based prediction of compression ignition engine distinctiveness powered by novel graphene oxide nanosheet additive diesel–Aegle marmelos pyrolysis oil ternary opus. Int J Energy Environ Eng2022; 13: 683–701. DOI: 10.1007/s40095-021-00458-1.
21.
RajakUNashinePVermaTN, et al.Alternating the environmental benefits of Aegle-diesel blends used in compression ignition. Fuel2019; 256: 115835. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2019.115835.
22.
ThangarasuVAngkayarkanVMRamanathanA. Artificial neural network approach for parametric investigation of bio-diesel synthesis using biocatalyst and engine characteristics of diesel engine fuelled with Aegle Marmelos Correa bio-diesel. Energy2021; 230: 120738. DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2021.120738.
23.
RajamohanSHari GopalAMuralidharanKR, et al.Evaluation of oxidation stability and engine behaviors operated by Prosopis juliflora bio-diesel/diesel fuel blends with presence of synthetic antioxidant. Sustain Energy Technol Assessments2022; 52: 102086. DOI: 10.1016/j.seta.2022.102086.
24.
ChhabraMSainiBSDwivediG. Impact assessment of biofuel from waste neem oil. Energy Sources, Part A Recovery, Util Environ Eff2021; 43: 3381–3892. DOI: 10.1080/15567036.2019.1623946.
25.
RajamohanSKasimaniR. Analytical characterization of products obtained from slow pyrolysis of Calophylluminophyllum seed cake: study on performance and emission characteristics of direct injection diesel engine fuelled with bio-oil blends. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int2018; 25: 9523–9538. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-1241-x.
26.
MadhuPSowmya DhanalakshmiCMathewM. Multi-criteria decision-making in the selection of a suitable biomass material for maximum bio-oil yield during pyrolysis. Fuel2020; 277: 118109. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118109.
27.
ThangarasuVRamanathanA. Production of bio-diesel from Aegle marmelos correa seed oil for fuel cell application. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci2019; 312: 012018. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/312/1/012018.
28.
ShameerPMRameshK. Influence of antioxidants on fuel stability of Calophylluminophyllum bio-diesel and RSM-based optimization of engine characteristics at varying injection timing and compression ratio. J Braz Soc Mech Sci Eng2017; 39: 4251–4273. DOI: 10.1007/s40430-017-0884-8.
29.
AtabaniAESilitongaASOngHC, et al.Non-edible vegetable oils: a critical evaluation of oil extraction, fatty acid compositions, bio-diesel production, characteristics, engine performance and emissions production. Renew Sustain Energy Rev2013; 18: 211–245. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2012.10.013.
30.
SunXAtiyehHKLiM, et al.Biochar facilitated bioprocessing and biorefinery for productions of biofuel and chemicals: a review. Bioresour Technol2020; 295: 122252. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122252.
31.
RamalingamSGovindasamyMEzhumalaiM, et al.Effect of leaf extract from Pongamia pinnata on the oxidation stability, performance and emission characteristics of calophyllum bio-diesel. Fuel2016; 180: 263–269. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2016.04.046.
32.
PütünAEÖzbayNKoçkarÖM, et al.Fixed-bed pyrolysis of cottonseed cake: product yields and compositions. Energy Sources1997; 19: 905–915. DOI: 10.1080/00908319708908900.
33.
NisarJWarisSShahA, et al.Production of bio-oil from de-oiled Karanja (pongamia pinnata L.) seed press cake via pyrolysis: kinetics and evaluation of anthill as the catalyst. Sustainable Chemistry2022; 3: 345–357. DOI: 10.3390/suschem3030022.
34.
JourabchiSAGanSNgHK. Comparison of conventional and fast pyrolysis for the production of Jatropha curcas bio-oil. Appl Therm Eng2016; 99: 160–168. DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.01.045.
35.
HariramVJohnJGSeralathanS, et al.Comparative analysis of combustion, performance and emission phenomenon of a CI engine fuelled with algal and cotton seed bio-diesel. Int J Ambient Energy2021; 42: 636–647. DOI: 10.1080/01430750.2018.1562977.
36.
DhanamuruganASubramanianR. Emission and performance characteristics of a diesel engine operating on diesel-stone apple (aegle marmelos) bio-diesel blends.
37.
DhanamuruganASubramanianR. Effect of injection timing on a diesel engine fueled with Stone apple bio-diesel2015; 74.
38.
BaranitharanPRameshKSakthivelR. Multi-attribute decision-making approach for Aegle marmelos pyrolysis process using TOPSIS and grey relational analysis: assessment of engine emissions through novel Infrared thermography. J Clean Prod2019; 234: 315–328. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.06.188.
39.
DhanavathKNBankupalliSSugaliCS, et al.Optimization of process parameters for slow pyrolysis of neem press seed cake for liquid and char production. J Environ Chem Eng2019; 7: 102905. DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2019.102905.
40.
BaranitharanPRameshKSakthivelR. Analytical characterization of the Aegle marmelos pyrolysis products and investigation on the suitability of bio-oil as a third generation biofuel for C.I engine. Environ Prog Sustain Energy2019; 38: e13116. DOI: 10.1002/ep.13116.
41.
FauzanNATanESPuaFL, et al.Physiochemical properties evaluation of Calophylluminophyllum bio-diesel for gas turbine application. S Afr J Chem Eng2020; 32: 56–61. DOI: 10.1016/j.sajce.2020.02.001.
42.
AshokBJeevananthamAKNanthagopalK, et al.An experimental analysis on the effect of n-pentanol- CalophyllumInophyllum bio-diesel binary blends in CI engine characteristcis. Energy2019; 173: 290–305. DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2019.02.092.
43.
MulimaniHVNavindgiMC. Production and characterization of bio-oil by pyrolysis of mahua de-oiled seed cake. Chemistry Select. 2018; 3(4): 1102–1107. doi:10.1002/slct.201702198.
44.
LiangSHanYWeiL, et al.Production and characterization of bio-oil and bio-char from pyrolysis of potato peel wastes. Biomass Convers Biorefin2015; 5: 237–246. DOI: 10.1007/s13399-014-0130-x.
45.
PattiyaASuttibakS. Influence of a glass wool hot vapour filter on yields and properties of bio-oil derived from rapid pyrolysis of paddy residues. Bioresour Technol2012; 116: 107–113. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.03.116.
46.
AcharyaNNandaPPandaS, et al.Analysis of properties and estimation of optimum blending ratio of blended mahua bio-diesel. Eng Sci Tech Inter J2017; 20: 511–517. DOI: 10.1016/j.jestch.2016.12.005.
47.
AcharyaNNandaPPandaS, et al.A comparative study of stability characteristics of mahua and jatropha bio-diesel and their blends. J King Saud Univ - Eng Sci2019; 31: 184–190. DOI: 10.1016/j.jksues.2017.09.003.
48.
ŞensözSKaynarI. Bio-oil production from soybean (Glycine max L.); Fuel properties of Bio-oil. Ind Crops Prod2006; 23: 99–105. DOI: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2005.04.005.
49.
YinRLiuRMeiY, et al.Characterization of bio-oil and bio-char obtained from sweet sorghum bagasse fast pyrolysis with fractional condensers. Fuel2013; 112: 96–104. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2013.04.090.
50.
HassanEBMSteelePHIngramL. Characterization of fast pyrolysis bio-oils produced from pretreated pine wood. Appl Biochem Biotechnol2009; 154: 3–13. DOI: 10.1007/s12010-008-8445-3.
51.
PrasadLSubbaraoPMVSubrahmanyamJP. Pyrolysis and gasification characteristics of Pongamia residue (de-oiled cake) using thermogravimetry and downdraft gasifier. Appl Therm Eng2014; 63: 379–386. DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.11.005.
52.
ZhangCLiSOuyangS, et al.Co-pyrolysis characteristics of camellia oleifera shell and coal in a TGA and a fixed-bed reactor. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis2021; 155: 105035. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaap.2021.105035.
53.
KazemiTarghiNTavakoliONazemiAH. Co-pyrolysis of lentil husk wastes and Chlorella vulgaris: bio-oil and biochar yields optimization. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis2022; 165: 105548. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaap.2022.105548.
54.
ZakerAChenZZaheer-UddinM, et al.Co-pyrolysis of sewage sludge and low-density polyethylene – a thermogravimetric study of thermo-kinetics and thermodynamic parameters. J Environ Chem Eng2021; 9: 104554. DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2020.104554.
55.
BaranitharanPSriariyanunMBabuD, et al.Dual feedstock pyrolysis of Aegle marmelos pressed seed cake and novel Annona squamosa seed particles: the effect of dual natural antioxidant on the oxidation stability of derived co-pyrolysis liquid-A green approach. Biofuels2023; 14: 485–497. DOI: 10.1080/17597269.2022.2151402.
56.
MathimaniTSenthil KumarTChandrasekarM, et al.Assessment of fuel properties, engine performance and emission characteristics of outdoor grown marine Chlorella vulgaris BDUG 91771 bio-diesel. Renew Energy2017; 105: 637–646. DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2016.12.090.
57.
BhumulaKbabuGNK. Using CRITIC-TOPSIS and python to examine the effect of 1-Hepatnol on the performance and emission characteristics of CRDI CI engine with split injection. Heliyon2024; 10: e31484. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31484.
58.
ParamasivamB. Investigation on emission, performance, and combustion distinctiveness of bael seed cake pyrolysis oil/nano biochar/diesel blend fuelled in a compression ignition engine. Environ Prog Sustain Energy2022; 41: e13871. DOI: 10.1002/ep.13871.
59.
JayabalR. Optimization and impact of modified operating parameters of a diesel engine emissions characteristic utilizing waste fat bio-diesel/di-tert-butyl peroxide blend. Process Saf Environ Protect2024; 186: 694–705. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2024.04.019.
60.
NguyenVNBalasubramanianDRajarajanA, et al.Engine behavior analysis on a conventional diesel engine combustion mode powered by low viscous cedarwood oil/waste cooking oil bio-diesel/diesel fuel mixture – an experimental study. Process Saf Environ Protect2024; 184: 560–578. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2024.02.002.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
